8. PERCEPTION AND ILLUSION 9. THINKING, REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING 10. MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR 11. ATTENTION 12. LEARNING
Chapter 8
PERCEPTION AND ILLUSION
We always remain surrounded by the forces of our environment. Our sensory receptors are bombarded continuously by the various stimuli present in this environment. As a result we become aware of (although in a very typical selective way) some light, sound or chemical stimuli by experiencing some typical sensations. This awareness Or information about the stimuli is then relayed by our sensory transmitter to the centres of the nervous system.
Remember that the psychological process upto this stage is strictly contined to the feeling of some consciousness of awareness of one or the other stimuli present in our environment. Our eyes for instance, only make us aware of some light stimuli—it does not “‘see’’ the book or the pen. Our ears are aware of some auditory stimulation but cannot tell us that the train is whistling or birds are twittering. The question arises, then what happens inside our central nervous system? How are we helped in analysing, identifying, classifying, interpreting and deriving the meaning of the awareness or sensory impressions concerning the typical stimuli? In other words, how is our brain able to organise the transmitted sensory coded message concerning variety of stimuli of our world into some meaningful pattern? The answers to all these questions may be given through the psychology cof perception.
Let us first try to get aquainted with the meaning of the term perception.
Meaning of Perception The term perception may be defined as under:
E.G. Boring, H.S. Langfield & H.P. Weld: ‘‘Perception is the first ove the chain which leads from the stimulus to action.’ (1948, p. 10). _ Charles G. Morris: ‘‘All the processes involved in creating meaningful patterns out of a jumble of sensory impressions fall under the general category of perception.” (1979, p. 325). Edmund Fantino and G.S. Renolds: ‘‘Perception is the organising process by which we interpret our sensory input.” (1975, p. 262). O. Desiderato, D.B. Howieson & J.H. Jackson: ‘Perception is the experience of objects, events or relationships obtained by extracting niformation from and interpreting sensations.”’ (1976, p. 128)
R.E. Silverman: ‘‘Perception is an individual’s awareness aspect of vehaviour, for it is the way each person processes the raw data he or she receives from the environment, into meaningful patterns.”’ (1979, p. 123).
From the above definitions we come to the following conclusions abc ut the nature and meaning of the term perception.
1. Perception is a’ process: Perception is essentially a process rather than being a product or outcome of some psychological phenomenon. If we talk in terms of systems approach, then, sensory impressions, gathered through our sensory organs, may be termed as INPUT. The way in which we finally behave or react to this gathered information may be taken as OUTPUT. Perception provides the necessary link in terms of PROCESS for converting INPUT into OUTPUT by way of organising and interpreting the sensory impressions.
2. Perception is the information extractor; Our sensory receptors are hombarded continuously by various stimuli present in our environment. It is difficult and rather impossible to react to all stimulation. A selection process is therefore essential. Perception performs this duty by extracting relevant information out of a jumble of sensory impressions and converting them into some meaningful pattern.
3. Perception is preparation to response. Perception is the first step towards the active behaviour of an organism. It is the preparatory stage that prepares an individual for action and response. Our sensory receptors are just the receiving and transmitting centres of the sensory information. How we should react and respond is ordered by our central nervous system through the involvement of some mediating activily know as perception.
4. Perception involves Sensation: In a simple and straightforward way, we may sense that sensation precedes perception. The relationships between sensation and perception is always direct, that is, what we do have in sensation is always a part of perception. Perception goes beyond sensation as it organises, interprets and gives meaning to the result of sensations. Therefore, to a student of Psychology, perception means assigning meaning to sensory stimuli. Sensation, attached with some meaning is thus termed as perception.
5. Perception provides organisation: In addition to the heip provided in deriving meaning to sensory impressions, perception also helps in its proper arrangement and organisation. This arrangement or organisation reflects a particular pattern rather than being merely a summation of the sensory impressions. What one perceives, he perceives as a whole in an organised pattern and not as the sum total of various stimuli.
6. Perception is highly individualized: Perception by all means, is an individual affair. Different individuals do not perceive objects, events or relationships in much the same way. Even individual perceptions of the same event may vary. For example, a hawker selling the commodities in the open ground and a farmer standing in his farm are likely to perceive rain in quite different ways. The same rain may cause a quite different perception for the same farmer at the harvesting season. It is because the perception is always influenced by the internal bodily factors as well as the psychological factors like attention, expectations, motivation and past -experiences with the stimuli, etc.
A closer look at the nature and characteristics of perception may help us to derive a somewhat useful definition in the following form:
Perception is a highly individualized psychological process that helps an organism in organising and interpreting the complex patterns of sensory stimulation for giving them the necessary meaning to initiate his behavioural response.
Perceptual organisation
As we have seen our senses react to patterns of stimuli present in our environment. Perception organises that stimulation, it interprets the patterns and gives them meaning. The question here arises how does this perceptual organisation take place. This phenomenon was first studied properly by a group of German psychologists known as the Gestaltists. Notable among these psychologists were Max Worthemer Kurt Koffxa and Wolfgang Kohler. The word ‘gestalt’ coming from the German, means configuration, totality or whole. Gestalt psychologists tried to study perception in terms of Gestalts or wholes. They asserted that what we perceive in terms of an object, we perceive it in terms of its totality or a whole and not merely a random collection of its constituents or parts. They found that individuals tend to organise environmental stimuli into some meaningful patterns or wholes according to certain principles.
The Gestaltists discovered over hundred principles or laws concerning the perceptual organisation. Similarly there are other psycologists who put other theories and principles like adaptation level for explaining the mechanism of perceptual organisation. Below we would like to discuss some of these important principles:
The principle of Figure-Ground relationship
According to this principle, a figure is perceived in relationship to its background. A tree is a figure that appears against a background of a sky. Similarly the words are figures that appear on the background of a page. The perception of the object or figure in terms of colour, size, shape, intensity and interpretation etc., depends upon the figure-ground relationship. We perceive a figure against a background or background against a figure depending upon the characteristics of the perceiver as well as the relative strength of the figure or ground.
Sensory experiences other than visual experiences may also ve perceived as figure and ground. A person who is eating a meal that tastes too salty will perceive salt as a figure on a ground of chapaties and vegetables. We smell, listen and watch particular odour, news and figures of television (figure) and at the same time are aware of the conversations going on and various objects present in the room (ground).
A proper figure-ground relationships is quite important from the angle of the perception of a figure or the ground. In case where such relationship does not exist we may witness ambiguity in terms of clear perception as may be revealed through the following figure (the famous Rubin’s Vase) depicting reversible figure-ground perception.
Here the pattern shown above may be perceived in two plausible ways depending on which of the two shapes, vase or two faces, is perceived as the figure and which as background. Moreover, it 1S impossible to perceive both figure and background at the same time.
Principle of closure
Anotker important principle of perceptual organisation is that of closure. According to this principle, while confronting an incomplete pattern one tends to complete or close the pattern or fill in sensory gaps and perceives it as a meaningful whole. This type of organisation is extremely helpful in making valuable interpretation of various and complete object patterns or stimuli persent in our environment.
Principle of Grouping
Principle of grouping refers to the tendency to perceive stimuli in some organised meaningful patterns by grouping them on some solid basis like similarity, proximity and continuity.
(i) On the basis of similarity, objects or stimuli that look alike are usually perceived as a unit.
(ii) On proximity basis objects or stimuli that appear close to one another are likely to be perceived as belonging to the same group. proximity appear as a square while the same sixty-four cubes grouped in four appear as sixteen squares.
iii) On continuity basis, the objects or stimuli are perceived as a unit Or group on the basis of their continuity by selecting the dot cord instead of breaking the continuity by selecting b or a. [t explains why our attention is being held more by continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.
Principle of simplicity
According to this Gestaltian principle, who tend to imterpret our sensory stimulation so that we perceive the simplest possible pattern. The Simplicity or ‘Configurational goodness’ (in the language of Gestalt psychology) of a figure is said to observe the general rule that the information about the parts is able to provide knowledge of the whole. Thus the characteristic like symmetry, unbroken lines and curves, compact areas and the perceiver’s familiarity with the figure all may contribute to figural simplicity because they enable the perceiver to perceive the whole from some of its parts.
Principle of contour
A contour is said to be a boundary between a figure and its ground. The degree of the quality of this contour separating figure from ground is responsible for enabling us to Organise stimuli or objects into meaningful patterns.
Principle of context
Perceptual organisation jis also governed by the principle of context i.e., the setting In which a perceived stimulus or object appears. A change in its context Is likely to bring a great change in its perception.
For example. the rain may be perceived by the same farmer, as different in different contexts. Similarly a word or phrase may mean different things in different contexts. An examiner may award higher marks to the same answer book in a pleasant context than in an unpleasant one.
Principle of contrast
Perceptual organisation 1s very much affected through contrast effects as the stimuli that are in sharp contrast to nearby stimuli may draw our maximum attention and carry different perceptual affects. For example the intensity or brightness of a colour is strongly affected by the presence or proximity of the contrasting background or figure. It may also lead to distortion of our perception as may be evident .
Principle of adaptability
According to this principle, the perceptual organisation for some Stimuli depends upon the adaptability of the perceiver to perceive the Similar stimuli. An individual who adapts himself to work before an Intense bright light will perceive normal sunlight as quite dim while for a person who adapts himself to work in a dimly lit dark room, the normal sunlight is likely to be perceived as very bright. Similarly our Senses of touch, smell, hearing may all get accustomed to a certain degree of stimulation and getting accustomed to this may strongly affect the interpretation of the related sensations.
Perceptual constancy
Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to perceive the stimuli present in our environment as relatively stable and unchanging, even though in reality there may be alterations in sensory information by way of shape, size, colour, brightness or other characteristics. It is possible on account of our previous experience, knowledge and familiarity with a particular sensory stimuli. We tend to havea stable, regular and consistent perception of that particular stimuli despite the significant changes introduced in terms of the sensory impressions. For example, Red Fort is perceived as a red fort by day or night and from any distance or angle. We tend to perceive it as the same fort despite the changes in sensory information reaching the retina on account of alterations in distance, direction or illumination.
There are a number of different types of perceptual] constancy like shape constancy, size constancy, colour constancy, brightness constancy, or loudness constancy etc. Let us discuss a few of these important constancies.
Shape constancy
Shape constancy refers to the tendency of perceiving the shape of familiar objects as relatively stable, constant and unchanging despite the fact that the retinal images may vary greatly depending on the viewing angles. For example we tend to perceive the door of a classroom as rectangular no matter from which angle it is viewed. Actually, the rectangular door of the classroom projects a rectangular image on our retina only when it is viewed directly from the front. At other angles, the image will be trapezoidal. But it is the phenomena of shape constancy that makes us perceive the door as rectangular thus retaining the same familiar shape. Similarly a wall clock looking perfectly round, while standing in front of it is perceived by us as round, following the principle of shape constancy, even when it is viewed from an angle where the actual retinal image will be elliptical.
Size constancy
Size constancy refers to that type of perceptual constancy where the objects tend to retain their familiar size irrespective of the viewing distance. In actuality, the size of the retinal image of the object goes on decreasing as distance from the object increases but on account of the phenomena of size constancy, the object is not perceived as shrinking in its size. For example, the familiar object like a class-room teacher is likely to be perceived of the same size say 5 feet 8 inches and not as 4 or 3 feet even incase the actual retinal image get decreased in size on account of his moving from 10 feet in front of the class to 30 feet.
Brightness and colour constancy
Brightness or colour constancy refers to the tendency of perceiving the brightness, darkness, or colour of a familiar object as fairly constant or unchanged even if there has been a great change in the intensity of light reflected from it at different times in different places. It is only on account of this perceptual constancy that we happen to perceive a white wall to be the same shade of white in broad daylight as in the pale or dim light of the evening. Strictly in the real sense, according to the phenomenon of light sensation the wall must be perceived darker in the evening than in bright day-lght but the brightness or colour constancy makes us perceive it as of the same brightness or colour irrespective of the intensity of illumination. This is simply on account of our familiarity with the colour or brightness of the wall and this adaptation makes us observe colour or brightness constancy for the varying intensities of light reflected from it at different timings of the day.
All these types of perceptual constancy play a key role in making the world quite understandable and manageable for our harmonious adjustment. Imagine what would have happened to us in the absence of this natural gift. Then for us this world of ours would have been a confusing barrage of shapes, sizes, degrees of brightness and colour. With the changed positions in terms of shapes sizes and colours etc., the perception of the objects would have been utterly confusing Jeading to road accidents while driving a vehicle. But by the will of God, we enjoy perceptual constancy based in our previous experience, knowledge and familiarity with the perceived objects that help our brain to interpret the sensory information in a stable and unchanging manner for understanding and manipulating it properly to good advantage.
Perception of space
Perception of space involves the problem of three dimensional perception. In visual perception of space an object in the environment is to be perceived in terms of three relationships to the viewer. height (up-down), width (left-right) and distance or depth (near-far). The retina on which all qur visual images are to be projected is flat. It has but two dimensions, height and width; it has no depth. The question arises then, how can we manage objects in the third dimension, depth or distance. It is possible on account of some specific visual cues that he'p us to respond accurately to the direction, distance and depth of a perceived object. These cues that help effectively in the distance and depth perception are divided into two classes monocular cues and binocular cues.
Visual monocular cues are those cues that have been derived from Vision with one eye, or monocular vision i.e., they are effective even if one eye is closed. In contrast to visual monocular cues, visual binocular cues, require binocular vision i.e., the vision with both eyes. Let us now discuss the role of both types of visual cues.
Visual monacular cues
There exists a number of visual monocular cues to depth and distance perception. A few important ones are as below.
I. Relative size: An important monocular cue for the perception of the distance of a familar object is provided in terms of its known size and the size now perceived through its retinal image. We know that the images of the objects located further in the distance are smaller on the retina than those of objects close at hand. This relative decrease in the size of retinal image can be effectively used as a cue for the judgement of distance and depth. While viewing from the roof of a multistorey building or window of a flying airplane the size of the known stimuli, buses or other objects can provide us the idea of the relative distance. Similarly when we observe some painting or picture of an artist, the cue for the perception of distance is provided with the help of relative size. Here one person shown as being farther away than the other is depicted by reducing his size and showing him as smaller.
2. interposition: A second monocular cue is interposition. Interposition refers to a phenonienon in which one object partially blocks another object lying in the same line of vision. As a result of this cue, the first object that cuts off the view of the other is perceived as being closer and the other one as more distant.
3. Linear perspective: Linear perspective provides an important cue to depth and distance. Ihe classic examples of such perception based on this cue may be provided through rail road tracks, telephone wires, sides of a road, etc. This cue is based on the principle that straightlines appear to merge in the distance and the more the hnes converge the greater is our impression of the distance.
4. Light and shadows: The appropriate distribution of lights and shadows can provide another important cue to distance and to depth. Generally the darker shade showing shadow gives perception of depth and distance. Therefore, in any drawing or picture the distant objects arejshown darker and nearner objects.
Shadowing may also help in the perception of a three dimensional figure out of a two dimensional drawing. For example, the distribution of shadows and lights on the surface of a moon. ball or globe is able to provide them a three dimensional quality. We may thus perceive several craters or mounds on the surface of the moon and may add the perception of depth and distance to the ball or globe instead of perceiving them as some round object like flat disc
5. Texture gradient: A texture gradient may provide us With a good cue to physical distance and to depth. While the more densely packed and finer textures give the perception of distance. the spaced, detailed or rough textures give perception of nearness. In other words, the more dense the texture of a surface seems, the greater the distance or depth will be felt. For example when we look at any surface with regular linings such as shown in or texture the figural presentation becomes denser as distance increases.
6. Accommodation: Movement of our eye muscles to bring desirable changes in the shape of the eye lens (rounder or flatter) in accordance with the distance of the objects (nearer or farther away) in the field of vision is termed as accommodation. This change in the Shape of the lens on account of the phenomenon of accommodation Produces Kinesthetic sensations in terms of muscular tension in the muscles of the eye. We usually feel some eye muscle strain in focussing on a nearby object but little muscle strain when we focus on something far away. The degree of the intensity of muscle pain or lack of it, thus, may provide a good cue for the estimation of depth or distance.
7. Relative movement: In case we move our heads from side to side, the objects close to us are perceived as moving very quickly and those farther away are perceived as much more slowly. Similarly in our stationary position we perceive fast moving objects as being closer than slow moving objects. In case we are riding in a train, bus or car we may notice that the nearby trees or telephone poles seem to pass through our vision very rapidly, while distant hills and buildings seem to move fairly slowly. All these examples are concerned with the relative movement of the observer and the objects. It gives birth to a phenomenon of motion parallex, the apparent motion of the objects with regard to the position of an observer, which provides us some very important cues to depth and distances of the objects.
Binocular cues
Binocular vision requiring both eyes often provides more important cues than monocular vision in distance or depth perception. We will here discuss two important binocular cues naming Retinal disparity and Convergence.
1. Retinal disparity: lf we look at an object first with one eye and then with the other, we do not see an identical image. This disparity in images is known as retinal disparity. Our eyes are set approximately 2½ inches apart in our head. While looking through our left eye, the image of an object is seen slightly to the left where with the help of our right eye it is seen slightly to the right. Yet, when we perceive an object with both eyes, a single fused image is perceived. This fusion that takes place in the brain, provides us an important cue to distance or to depth; or of the object’s three dimensionality.
2. Convergence: Another important binocular cue to distance and depth is given by the muscles controlling the convergence of the eyes. We can notice that while looking at a distant object, the lines of vision of our eyes are almost, parallel. As the object is brought nearer (within 40 or 50 feet), both our eyes ‘converge’ upon the object in order to focus it. In case, the object is too close, the two images remain separate because the eyes refuse to converge.
The phenomenon of convergence is controlled by the eye muscles. The degree of eye muscle movement varies with the degree of convergence and this variation resulting in the Kinesthetic sensations serves as distance and depth cue in the perception of objects in space.
3. Auditory Space Perception: For judging the distance and depth of the objects in space. we do not solely depend upon the visual senses. Other senses like sense of smell and hearing etc., can also play a leading role in the perception of distance. depth and direction. This is why blind persons, while depending much on their auditory sense may be found to have a very good perception of depth: direction and distance. They are able to respond accurately to the direction and distance of a sound. In auditory perception, like visual perception, we may have two types of cues monaural cues (requiring hearing bv one ear along) and binaural cues (requiring hearing by both the ears). While in the perception of distance, the use of one ear «lone dmonaural cues) is enough, in the perception of direction we need both ears (binaural cues).
Perception of distance
The two important monaural cues to distance are known as loudness of the sound and echolocation.
Loudness of the sound provides cues for the judgement of the distance of an object. Loud sound gives cues for nearby objects. whereas a weak and soft sound stands for relatively distant objects. Along with the degree of loudness of the sound the experiences or familiarity with the source of the sound also helps in the proper estimation of the distance. In such cases as roaring jet planes, ringing telephones, thundering clouds, whistling trains, we can visualise the degree of the loudness expected from these sources in relation to their distance and are thus able to estimate the distance of the source of the sound.
In echolocation, we are supposed to judge the distance of an object, by emitting sounds and then taking note of the time taken for the return of their echoes. This phenomenon is similar to the way in which flying objects are located by radar. Blind people make use of this phenomenon for judging the distance of obstacles in their path. For this purpose, they usually tap their canes against the ground surface as they walk. Organisms like bats and dolphins also make use of this phenomenon for locating their foods and covering the distances by avoiding the obstacles in their paths.
Perception of direction
The cues with regard to the direction of the sound source is provided with the binaural cues like time difference cues and intensity difference cues.
Time difference cues help us to judge the left or right direction of the so.ind source. Since our ears are located on the left and right sides of our head, a sound wave coming from either side is bound to reach one ear before it reaches the other. This time difference (although less than one ten thousandth of a second) proves a sufficient base for accurate estimation of the direction of a sound source particularly of medium and low frequency tones.
Intensity difference cues prove quite helpful in locating the direction of the high frequency tones. Difference in the intensity of sounds reaching the two ears is referred to as intensity difference. This difference is because of the fact that sound waves coming from the sight or left side of the listener have to bend around the head to reach the farther ear. The head works as an obstacle and as a result some of the sound waves are blocked and do not reach the far ear at all. Thus the far ear receives a less intense sound in comparison to the other ear. Such intensity differences help in providing good cues for judging the direction of the sound source.
In this way, the joint efforts of monaural and binaural cues help us, to a great extent, to localize sounds in space in terms of distance as well as direction. However for determining the front-back, and upward-downward location of the sound one has to tlt slightly one’s head at an angle. In addition to this, the past learning experiences also play. a key role in estimating the location of a sound source. For example when we listen to the sound of a roaring Jet plane or thundering clouds we tend to look up by raising our heads. This experience coupled with the movement of our head and monaural as well as binaural cues provide us with a remarkable ability to locate the source of the sounds in space.
Perceptual illusions
Perceptual illusions represent gross misjudgement or false perception. The sensory information received by our sensory receptors is interpreted and given some meaning through the process of perception. Sometimes this interpretation goes wrong so that the resulting perception fails to correspond with reality. Such false perception or gross misinterpretation of the sensory information are called perceptual illusions.
Perceptual illusions differ in their nature and characteristics. Different illusions often have different sets of principles for explaining the cause of illusion. Let us try to examine a few well known types of illusions.
illusions of size: illusion of this type provides false perception of the size of the objects. For example a football in the hands of a child may be perceived larger than one in the hands of an adult despite the fact that the football is virtually the same size in both Situations. Similarly. the moon tends to appear much larger when it is on the horizon than when it ts directly overhead. In all such cases, Illusion is caused on account of the change in the frame of reference or background. A larger background always makes the objects, in its frame of reference, look smaller in comparison to a smallert background where they will be perceived us larger. This fact may also be verified through the illusions such as depicted.
Can you tell which of the centre crcles in the above figure is larger? Although both of these circles are the same size, the one on the left looks larger. It is also due to the misleading impact of the Smaller and larger backgrounds.
Illusions of Length: which of the two lines in this figure is longer? Although both these lines are identical, yet the bottom line is perceived. as longer. This is the famous Muller-Lyer illusion. It is caused on account of our interpretation of angles at the ends of the lines as perspective cues.
Illusion of perspective which of the two rectangular pieces skept between the railroad tracks in a larger in size? although both of the species are identical, yet the top of the looks longer than bottom one this is the famous Ponzo illusion. It is cost and account of misleading perspective cue as we hasten to add The third dimension (depth) to the stimulus. The top rectangular pieces thus, Looks largest simply because it appears to the farther away.
Illusions of Curvature: are the two horizontal lines straight and parallel? Although these lines are actually straight and parallel, yet they appear to be bowed. You may find it impossible to perceive them as straight and parallet, even if you are told the truth. Such illusions of curvature are supposed to be the result of eye movements and a tendency to over-estimate acute angles.
The Horizontal-Vertical Illusions: which of the two lines in the figure is longer? Although both the vertical and horizontal lines are physically equal in length, the vertical line is most often perceived as longer. Such horizontal-vertical illusions mainly result from the shape of our field of vision which is generally that of
a horizontal ellipse. In the perception of vertical line, the vertica} movements of the eye is supposed to produce more muscular strain as compared to horizontal movement in the perception of a horizontal line. The greater degree of strain, thus felt may cause horizontal-vertical illusion resulting in the perception of the vertical line as longer. .
Illusions of Movement: Quite often, we perceive movement when the objects, we are looking at, are actually not moving at all. Such faulty perceptions’ are called illusions of movement. One illusion of such nature is known as autokinetic illusion where the faulty perception of movement is created by a single stationary object. If we enter a room that is completely dark except for a small spot of stationary light and stare at this light for a few seconds, the spot of light is perceived to move around. It happens because in the dark room, we do not get any cue to perceive that the spot of light is stationary and in such circumstances a slight movement of our eye muscles may create a false perception of the movements of the spot-light.
A second type of illusion of movement is created through induced motion. When. we watch the sun under a cloud, it appears to be in motion. Here the cloud in fact remains in motion. In the framework of the sky, the clouds are perceived as the ground and the sun as the figure. On account of the figure-ground relationship, an apparent motion is induced and we get a faulty perception that the sun (figure) is moving through the clouds (ground).
Another type of illusion of movement is based on the phenomenon of Stroboscopi¢ motion—a kind of apparent or false motion usually perceived in movies and television. On the screens of movie and television still picturés, in a series are projected separately in rapid succession. On account of this rapid presentation we perceive a smooth flowing movement instead of the series of discrete still pictures.
Stroboscopic motion is also responsible for an illusory phenomenon, called phi-phenomenon This phenomenon was first discovered and successfully demonstrated in 1912 by a German Gestalt psychologist, Max Wertheimer. He showed that if two short parallel lines of light are projected one centimeter apart in a dark room at intervals between 30 and 200 thous thous of a second, the light ts perceived as moving from one position to the other. In our daily life we often come across such illusory movements such as when we perceive movements in the stationary neon signs on an advertising board where words appear to move from one end of the board to the other as different combinations of stationary lights are flashed on and off.
SUMMARY
Perception is a highly individualized psychological process that helps an organism in organising and interpreting the complex
patterns of sensory stimulation for giving them the necessary meaning to initiate his behavioural response.
Perception, thus, is concerned with the task of organising environmental stimuli into some meaningful patterns or wholes according to certain principles. Psychologists have discovered over hundred principles or laws concerning the perceptual organisation. The Principle of Figure ground relationship stands for the perception of a figure in relationship to its background. Principle of closure describes the tendency to complete or close an incomplete pattern. Principle of grouping refers to the tendency to perceive the stimuli by grouping them on the basis of similarity, proximity and continuity. Principle of simplicity advocates perceiving the simplest possible pattern. Principle of contour asks for the degree of the quality of the contour, separating figure from ground. Principle of context demands a meaningful change in the setting in which a perceived stimulus appears. Principle of contrast lays emphasis on care of the contrast effects in perceptual organisation and Principle of adaptation advocates that we develop an adaptation level that acts as a standard by which we judge or compare stimuli. Perceptual constancy refers to a tendency to perceive the stimuli as relatively stable and unchanging (despite changing sensory images). Constancy can occur in the form of shape (shape constancy), size (size constancy) and colour (colour constancy).
Perception of space: Perception of space involves the problem of three dimensional perception i.e., height, width and depth or distance. In visual perception we can perceive depth or distance through monocular cues (from one eye) or binocular cues (requiring both eyes). Visual monocular cues to depth or distance include relative size, interposition, linear perspective, light and shadows, texture gradient, accommodation and relative movement. In binocular cues we include cues like retinal disparity and convergence.
In judging the distance and depth of the objects in space, one can rely on other sensory systems like sense of smell and hearing etc., besides his visual senses. In auditory space perception, the perception of distance may be carried out only through monaural cues (requiring one ear) like loudness of the sound and echolocation. However in the perception of direction of the sound source, binaural cues (requiring both ears) like time difference and intensity difference are needed.
Perceptual Illusions represent gross misjudgement or false perception of the sensory information. illusions of size provides false perception of the size of the objects. It is caused on account of the Change in the frame of reference or background. illusion of length like famous Miuller-Lyer illusion is caused on account of our interprelation of angles at the ends of the lines as perspective cues. iIlusion of perspective like famous ‘‘Ponzo illusion’’ is caused on account of misleading perspective cue. illusions of curvature are supposed to be resulted from eye movements and a tendency to over estimate acute angles. The horizontal-Vertical illusions result from the shape of our field of vision which is generally that of a hotizontal ellipses illusions of movement involves the perception of movement in objects that are actually standing still. The autokinetic illusion refers to the apparent motion created by a single stationary object. A second type of illusory movement is created through induced motion produced by the false perception of figure-ground relationship. Another type of illusion of movement is based on the phenomenon of Stroboscopic motion—a kind of apparent motion usually perceived in movies and television. Stroboscopic motion is also responsible for an illusory phenomenon, known as phi phenomenon e.g., perception of.an apparent movement in the stationary neon Signs on an advertising board.
References and Suggested Readings
Bartley. S. H., Principles of Perception (2nd ed. ), New York: Harper & Row, 1969.
Beadslee, D. and Wertheimer, M., Readings in Perception, Princeton: Van Nastrand, 1958.
Boring, E.G., Langfield, H.S. ‘and Weld, H.P. (Ed.), Foundations ‘of Psychology. New York: John. Wiley, 1948."
Desiderato, O.. Howieson. D.B. and Jackson J.H., lmvestigating BehaviourPrinciples of Psychology, New York: Harper & Row, 1976.
Fantino, Edmund and Renold, G.S., Introduction te Contemporary Psychology, San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co: 1975,
Gibson, E.J., Principles of Perceptual Learning and Development, New York: , Appleton-century-crofts, 1969.
Gombrich, E.H., Art and Ulusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Presentation (4th ed.), London: Phaidon, 1972.
Gregory, R.L., Eye and Brain: The Psychology of Seeing, New York: McGraw Hill, 1966.
Gregory R.L. and Gombrich, E.H., Ji/usion in Nature and Art, New York: Scribners, 1974.
Kaufman, L.; Sight and Sound, New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. Machlis, J; The Enjoyment af Music (3rd Ed ), New York: Norton, 1970, Melzack, R., The Puzzle of Pain, New York: Basic Books, 1973.
Moris, Gane G., Psychology (3rd Ed.) Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey’ Prentice, a
Rock, J, Aun Introduction to Perception, New York: Macmillan, 1975,
Silverman, R.E., Essentiols of Psychology (2nd ed.), Englewood Cliffs, New Jeraey. Prentice Hall, 1979.
Weintraub, D. and Walker, E.L,: Perception, Belmont Calif: Brooks Cole, 1966.
9/16 @ glossary General Psychology
THINKING, REASONING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING
The cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning and problemsolving may be considered as some of the chief characteristics of human beings that separate them from other species including higher animals. What we see in the form of a good poetry, a highly developed computer machine or robot, a beautiful painting, a magnificent building are the products of the thinking, reasoning and problemsolving abilities of their creators and inventors. Not only that but what has been given to us by these creators and inventors can: only be fully understood. appreciated and brought into our service if we are able to make judicious use of our thinking and reasoning powers. The challenges and problems faced by the individual, or society in general, may be solved through some serious efforts involving thinking and reasoning. Thinking and reasoning powers may thus be considered as an essential tool for the welfare of the individual as well as the society. In the present chapter we will try to know something about the process of thinking, reasoning and problem-solving behaviour of human beings.
THINKING
Define Thinking : Thinking is an incredibly complex process and a most difficult concept in psychology to define or explain. However, the thinkers have left no stone unturned in their quest for achieving some results, and have succeeded in coming up with dozens of different definitions. Let us begin with the reproduction of a few such definitions.
Valentine : “‘In strict psychological discussion it is well to keep the thinking for an activity which consists essentially cf a connected flow of ideas which are directed towards some end or purpose” (1965, p. 278).
Ross : ‘‘Thinking is mental activity in its cognitive aspect or Mental activity with regard to psychological objects. (1951, Pp. 196-97).
Garrett: ‘Thinking is behaviour which is often implicit and hidden and in which symbols (images, ideas, concepts) are ordinarily employed (1968. p. 378).
Mohsin: ‘Thinking is an implicit problem-solving behaviour” (1967 p. 117).
Gilmer : ‘“‘Thinking is a problem-solving process in which we use ideas or symbols in place of overt activity’ (1970 p. 326).
Definitions like the above may be divided into two categories. In the first category we have the definitions which maintain that thinking is a process of internal representation of external events (belonging to past, present or future). We may think about a thing or an event ever when it is not actually manipulated or observed by us. In the second category, we may include the definitions which describe thinking in terms of problem-solving behaviour. The definitions falling in the second category, are more concrete and function better than the first one because they do not rely on unobservable internal representations but rather define thinking as problem-solving activity that can be readily studied and measured (Fantino & Reynolds, 1975, p. 166).
Actually, whatever the apparent difference, these two classes of definitions tell the same story. The internal representation helps in problem-solving behaviour and problem-solving behaviour provides evidence for the existence of internal representation. Therefore, what iS representational may be used as functional and vice versa. The process of thinking and the product of thinking are both actually assessed by what we get as a result of thinking. The manner in which individuals think can always be inferred from their behaviour. Internal representation of mental explanation of the thing or events (the internal behaviour) should be made an essential aspect of the thinking process used in problem-solving behaviour. Therefore in a workable definition of ‘thinking’ we must try to combine internal behaviour with the product of thinking (the aims or purposes of thinking). In such a case, we may define thinking as below :
‘‘Thinking refers to a pattern of behaviour in which we make use of internal representations (symbols, signs etc.) of the things and events for the solution of some specific purposeful problem.”’
Nature of thinking
The meaning of the term ‘thinking’ as discussed in the preceding pages is further elucidated in the following lines :
(i) Thinking is essentially a cognitive activity.
(ii) It is always directed to achieve some end or purpose. In genuine thinking we cannot let our thoughts wonder on withOut any definite end in mind as happens in the case of daydreaming and imagination.
(iii) Thinking is described as a problem-solving behaviour. From the beginning to the end, there is some problem around which the whole process of thinking revolves. But every problemsolving behaviour is not thinking. It is only related to the inner cognitive behaviour.
(iv) In thinking there is mental exploration instead of motor exploration. One has to suspend immediately one’s overt or motor activities while engaging in thinking through some or other types of mental exploration.
(V) Thinking is a symbolic activity. In thinking there is a mental solution of the problem which is carried out through some signs, symbols, and mental images.
(vi) Thinking can shift very rapidly, covering an expanse of time and space almost instantaneously.
Elements of thought (Tools of Thinking)
The various elements involved in the thinking process may be summarised as under. In the process of thinking we usually rely on these elements or tools.
1. Images : Images, as mind pictures, consist of personal experiences of objects, persons or scenes once actually seen, heard or felt. These mind pictures symbolise the actual objects, experiences and activities. In thinking, we usually manipulate the images instead of actual objects, experiences or activities.
2. Concepts : A concept is a ‘general idea’ that stands for a general class and represents the common property of all the objects, or events of this general class. The concepis as a tool economise our efforts in thinking. For example when we listen to the word ‘elephant’ we are at once reminded not only about the nature and qualities of the elephants as a class but also our particular experiences and understanding about them emerge from our consciousness that stimulate our present thinking.
3. Symbols and Signs : Symbols and signs represent and stand as substitutes for actual objects, experiences and activities. In this sense they cannot be confined to words and mathematical numerals and terms. Traffic lights, railway signals, school bells, badges, songs, flags, and slogans all stand for the symbolic expression. These symbols and signs stimulate and economise thinking. They at once tell us what to do or how to act. For example, the waiving of the green flag by the guard tells us that the train is about to move and we should get in the train. Similarly, the mathematical symbol for subtraction (—) tells a child what he has to do. The conclusion drawn by Boring, Langfield and Weld for emphasizing the role of symbols and signs into the process of thinking is worth mentioning. They write ‘Symbols and Signs are thus seen to be the pawn and pieces with which the great game of thinking is played. It could not be such a remarkable and successful game without them” (1961, p. 199.)
4. Language: Language is the most efficient and developed vehicle used for carrying out the process of thinking. When one listens or reads or writes words, phrases or sentences or observes gesture in any language, one is stimulated to think. Reading and writing of the written documents and literature also help in stimulating and promoting our thinking process.
5. Muscle activities. Thinking in one way or the other shows evidence of the involvement of a slight incipient movement of groups of our muscles. It can be easily noticed that there are slight muscular responses when we think of a word, resembling the movements used when we utter the word aloud. A high positive correlation has been found to exist between the thinking and muscular activities of an individual. The more we engage ourselves in thought, the greater 1s the general muscular tension and conversely as we proceed toward muscular relaxation, our thought processes gradually diminish.
6. Brain Functions: Whatever may be the role of muscles, thinking is primarily a function of our brain. Our mind or brain is said to be the chief instrument or reservoir for carrying out the process of thinking. Whatever is experienced through our sense organs carries no meaning and thus cannot serve a stimulating agent, an instrument or object for our thinking unless the same is received by our brain cells and properly interpreted for driving some meaning. The mental pictures or images can be stored, formed, reconstructed or put to some use only through the functioning of the brain. Therefore, what happens in our thought process can simply be called a game, function or product of the activities of our brain.
Role of rigidity, set, direction and interest in thinking
Set may be inferred either to a kind of habit or to the way we are used to perceiving certain situations. Our thinking, reasoning and problem-solving behaviour are all largely affected through the inducement of sets. What goes previously in our perception or experience makes the base for our present and future thinking. We just do not want to deviate from this already set path of our thinking and this causes a lot of rigidity in our behaviour. As a result, we just do not wantto be bothered with methods, facts or new ideas. We always select the same path (decided on the basis of previous set), have the same likes or dislikes, biased or over simplified ways of thinking reasoning and problem-solving. The set that has been gained from previous experiences, surely interfere with subsequent thinking behavious. This reliance on a set way of thinking and habitual solution interferes with the thoughtful consideration of potential solution that is required for effective problemesolving. It mars the creative aspect of one’s endeavour. In brief, induction of a set in our thinking process which may help us in initiating some constructive thinking, after dependence on the set, leading to rigid habit of thinking (fixation of the thinking behaviour) may kill the potentiality for effective problem-solving and creativity in our behaviour.
The sets induced in our process of thinking are quite often the result of our interests, directions, purposes and goals of our accome plishments. How we should think, reason or engage in problem-solving can be understood and predicted. if one has a proper knowledge of our interests, attitudes, emotionality and goals of our hfe. One can think and reason within his own limits and these limits, to a certain extent, ure provided by the previous experiences in the form of sets, habits, interests and attitudes. This provides the foundation as well as the circumscribed boundaries in some cases for our thinking. It is both a boon or curse for our thinking, reasoning and problem-solving behaviour. It is a boon when the set procedures provide us with a lot of freedom and incentives in the form of various directives, alterna-tives and consequences: it is a curse when they bring rigidity and persistence in our ways of thinking by reducing the alternatives and choice of direction. ft may then lead to a stereotype behaviour, rigid thinking and completely destroys our initiative and potential for adequate problem-solving and creativity.
Types of thinking
Thinking, as a mental process, is usually classified into the following types:
l. Perceptual or concrete thinking: It is the simplest form of ‘hinking. The basis of this type of thinking is perception i.e., mterpretation of sensation according to one’s experience It is also named us concrete thinking as it is carried over the perception of actual or concrete objects and events.
2. Conceptual ur Abstract Thinking: Like perceptual thinking it does not require the perception of actual objects or events. It is an abstract thinking where one makes use of concepts; the generalised ideas and language. [t Is regarded as a superior type of thinking to perceptual thinking as if economizes efforts in understanding and problem-solving.
3. Reflective Thinking: It is somewhat of a higher form of thinking. It can be distinguished from simple thinking in the following ways:
(i) It aims at solving complex problems rather than simple problems.
(ii) It requires re organisation of all the relevant experiences and finding new ways of reacting to a situation or of removing an obstacle instead of simple association of experiences or ideas.
(iii) Mental activity in reflective thinking does not undergo any mechanical trial and error type of effort. There is an insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking.
(iv) It takes logic into account in which all the relevant facts are arrangcd in a logical order, in order to get to the solution of the problem in hand.
4. Creative Thinking: This type of thinking is chiefly aimed at creating something new. It is in search of new relationship and associations to describe and interpret the nature of things, events and situations. It is not bound by any pre-established rules. The individual himself, usually, formulates the problem and he is free to collect evidence and to invent tools for its solution. The thinking of the scientists or inventors is an example of creative thinking.
5. Non-directed or Associative Thinking: In strict psychological sense, what we have discussed above in terms of the type or categories of thinking constitutes real or genuine thinking. It is essentially a directed thinking which pertains to reasoning and problem-solving procedures aimed at meeting specific goals. However, there are times when we find ourselves engaged in a unique type of thinking which is non-directed and without goals. It is reflected through day-dreaming, dreaming, free associations, fantasy, delusions and other flowing uncontrolled activities. In psychological language such forms of thought are referred to as associative thinking.
Day-dreaming, fantasy and delusions all fall in the category of withdrawal behaviour that helps an individual to escape from the demands of the real world by making his thinking non-directed and free-floating (placing him somewhere else or doing something else).
While there is nothing too serious or too abnormal in the behaviour involving day-dreaming and fantasy, the behaviour involving delusions definitely points towards abnormality. Day-dreaming and fantasy are also not quite the same. Fantasy is more self directed. Here one roams through his own private world by engaging himself in thinking like “if I could—” or “If - I were——— —”. In day-dreaming our thinking floats unconsciously in unexpected directions. Day-dreaming and fantasies have both positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, they may reflect our repressed desires and a kind of wishful thinking that occurs when our inner needs cannot be expressed in actual behaviour. It may urge an individual to seek retirement from his duties and responsibilities. He may avoid facing the realities of life and waste his energy and talents in day-dreaming or fantasy. On the other hand, day-dreaming and fantasy can prove quite constructive by providing opportunities for building cognitive and creative skills and belping in problemsolving behaviour. It can help in providing relief from harsh realities of life as well as a means of reducing internal tensions and external aggression.
Delusions, characterising abnormality in behaviour, may be defined as persistent thoughts or false beliefs which the individual defends vigorously by believing them to be absolutely true despite logical absurdity or proof to the contrary, and despite their serious interference with his social adjustment. The individuals suffering from delusions never stand for the correction in their thoughts or beliefs (which have no basis in reality and are often inconsistent with the individual's knowledge and experience) by an appeal to reason.
Under the influence of such delusions one may think or believe that he is a millionaire, the ruler of the universe, a great inventor, a noted historian or even God. On the contrary, he may think himself the most incapable, unworthy or insecure creature in the world or may unnecessarily possess guilt feelings or complain thut he 1s suffering from some incurable physical or mental disease.
REASONING
Meaning and definition
Reasoning plays a significant role in adjusting to one’s environment. [t not only controls one’s cognitive activities, but also the total behaviour and personality is affected by the proper or improper development of one’s reasoning ability. It is essentially a cognitive ability and resembles thinking in so many aspects such as:
(i) Like genuine thinking, it involves a definite purpose or goal.
(ii) It is also an implicit act and involves problem-solving behaviour.
(iii) Like thinking here one makes use of one’s previous knowledge and experiences.
(iv) Like thinking there is mental exploration instead of motor exploration in reasoning as we try to explore mentally the reason or cause of an event or happening.
(v) Like thinking, reasoning is a highly symbolic function. The ability to interpret various symbols, development of concepts and linguistic ability helps much in reasoning.
On account of the above resemblance, it becomes difficult to distinguish between thinking and reasoning. However, reasoning is said to be a typical thinking—a productive and advanced stage in the complex process of one’s thinking. In comparison with thinking it is regarded as a more serious and complex mental process that needs a well organised brain. It also requires some deliberate efforts on the part of the individual who reasons.
The following definitions given by some eminent scholars can throw more light on the meaning and nature of process of reasoning.
Garrett: 'Reasoning is step-wise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind (1968, p. 353).
Gates: ‘‘Reasoning is the term applied to highly purposeful controlled selective thinking” (1947, p. 428).
Woodworth: ‘In reasoning, items (facts or principles) furnished by recall, present observation or both; are combined and examined ‘0.See what conclusion can be drawn from the combination (1945, p. 523).
Skinner: ‘‘Reasoning is the word used to describe the mental recognition of cause-and-effect relationships. It may be the prediction of an event from an observed cause or the inference of a cause from an observed event’’. (1968, p. 529).
Munn: “Reasoning is combining past experiences in order to solve a problem which cannot be solved by mere reproduction of earlier solutions’’ (1967, p. 339)
A close analysis of the above definitions may reveal that reasoning depicts a higher type of thinking which is quite careful. systematic and organised in its functioning. It may follow some logical systeMatic steps as under:
(i) Identification of the goal or purposes for which reasoning is to be directed.
(ii) The mental exploration or search for the various possibilities, cause and effect relationships or solutions for realising the set goal or purposes based on previous learning or experiences and present observations or attempts.
(iii) Selection of the most appropriate possibility or solution by careful mental analysis of all the available alternatives.
(iv) Testing the validity of the selected possibility or solution, purely through mental exercise and thus finally accept or reject it for the actual solution of the problem
Reasoning in this way may be termed as a highly specialized thinking which helps an individual to explore mentally the cause and effect relationship of an event or solution of a problem by adopting some well organised systematic steps based on previous experiences combined with the present observ ation.
Types of reasoning
Reasoning may be classified into two broad types—Inductive reasoning and Deductive reasoning.
Inductive Reasoning: In this type of reasoning we usually follow the process of induction. Induction is a way of proving a statement or generalizing a rule or principle by proving or showing that if a statement or a rule is true in one particular case, it will be true in cases which appear in some serial order and thu, it may be applied generally to all such type of cases. Theretore, by starting from particular facts or special examples and instances one can formulate generalized principles and conclusions in this type of reasoning. For example the following are inductive, reasoning:
(1) Mohan is mortal; Radha is mortal: Karim is mortal; Edward is mortal. Therefore, all human beings are mortal,
(2) Iron expands when heated; waiter also expands when heated; air also expands when heated Therefore, all types of matter—solid, liquid and gas—expand when heated.
Deductive Reasoning: Deductive reasoning is just opposite to inductive reasoning. Here one starts completely agreeing with some already discovered or pre-established generalized fact or principle and tries to apply it to particular cases. For example the following are deductive reasoning:
(1) All human beings are mortal; you are a human being and, therefore, you are mortal.
(2) Matter expands when heated: iron is a form of matter and thus expands when heated.
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Meaning and definition
From birth onwards, everybody in this world is faced with some problem or the other. There are needs and motives that are to be satisfied. For this purpose definite goals or aims are set. in an attempt to realise them one experiences obstacles and interferences. It creates a problem for him which needs serious attention and deliberate effort on his part to overcome the obstacle or interference in the attainment of the objectives. For this purpose one has to sect one-self to think and reason and proceed systematically in a scientific manner.
The productive work asa whole discussed above is known ay problem-solving. It has been found very useful for the progress of an individual as well as of societv. The meaning and nature of this term is made clearer still through the following definitions.
Woodworth and Marquis: “Problem-solving behaviour occurs in novel or difficult situations in which a solution is not obtainable by the habitual methods of applying concepts and principles derived from past experience in very familiar situations.”’ (1948, p. 623).
Skinner: “‘Problem-solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the attainment of a goal. Itis a proce‘dure of making adjustment in spite of interferences’. (1968, p. 539).
Analysis of the above definitions bring the following facts into the lime-light with regard to the meaning and nature of problemsolving behaviour.
(i) In the satisfaction of one’s needs and realisation of the set goals, problem-solving behaviour arises only when (a) the goal is quite purposeful and essential for the individual, (b) there is serious interference in the realization of thts goal, (c) this interference or obstacle cannot be overcome by simple habitual acts or mechanical trisl and error methods.
(ii) The individual has to utilise his thinking and reasoning powers and engage in serious mental work (by following some well organised systematic scientific steps) for the removal of the difficulties and obstacles
(iii) The problem-solving behaviour involves quite deliberate conscious and serious efforts on the part of the problem-solver.
(iv) Problem-solving behaviour helps in the removal or adjustment with interferences and ultimately makes an individual reach his goal and satisfaction of his motives.
(v) Problem-solving behaviour helps an individual in the growth and development of his personality making him happy and wiser by getting him adequately adjusted. It also contributes a lot towards the progress and development of society.
Thinking on the above lines, problem-solving behaviour can be understood as a deliberate and serious act on the part of an individual to realise the set goals or objectives by inventing some novel methods or following some systematic scientific steps when the simple methods like trial and error, habit formation and conditioning fails to remove the imterferences and obstacles that stand in the path of the realization of these goals.
Scientific method of problem-solving
The question arises, what is that scientific procedure which 1S. followed in a problem-solving behaviour. Let us describe its systematic steps.
Problem-awareness: The first step in the problem-solving beha.iour of an individual concerns his awareness of the difficulty or problem that needs a solution. He must be confronted with some obstacle or interference in the path of the realization of his needs or motives and consequently he must be conscious of the felt difficulty or problem.
2. Problem-understanding: The difficulty or problem felt by the individual should be properly identified by a careful analysis. He should be clear about what exactly is his problem. The problem then should be pin pointed in terms of the specific goals and objectives. Thus all the difficulties and obstacles in the path of the solution must be properly named and identified and what is to be got through the problem-solving efforts should then be properly analysed.
3. Collectian of the relevant information: In this step, the individual is required to collect all the relevant information about the problem through all possible sources. He may consult experienced persons, read the available literature, revive his old experiences. think of possible selutions, and put in all relevant efforts for widening the scope of his knowledge concerning the problem in hand.
4. Formulation of hypotheses or hunch for possible solutions: In the light of the collected relevant information and nature of his problem, one may then engage in some serious cognitive activities to think of the various possibilities for the solution of one’s problem. AS a result, he may start with a few possible solutions of his problem.
5. Selection of a proper solution: In thts important step, all the possible solutions, thought of im the previous step, are closely analysed and evaluated. Gates and othets (1946) have suggested the following activities in the evaluation of the assumed hypotheses op solution:
(i) one should determine the conclusion that completely satisfies the demands of the problem;
(ii) one should find out whether the solution is consistent with other facts and principles which have been well established;
(iii) one should make a deliberate search for negative instances which might cast doubts on the conclusion.
The above suggestions can help the individual to think ofa proper individual solution of his problem out of the many possible solutions. But for all purposes he has to use his own discretion by utilizing his higher cognitive abilities for the proper identification of the appropriate hypothesis or solution by rejecting all other hypotheses.
6. Verification of the concluded solution or hypothesis: The solution arrived at or conclusion drawn must be further verified by utilising it in the solution of the various likewise problems. In case, the derived solution helps in solving these likewise problems, then and then only, one is free to agree with his findings regarding the solution of his problem. The verified solution, may then become a useful product of his problem-solving behaviour that can be ulilized in solving other future problems.
SUMMARY
Thinking refers to a pattern of behaviour in which we make use of internal representations of the things and events for the solution of some specific purposeful problems.
Tools employed in the process of thinking, generally consist of images (mind pictures of the stimuli experienced), concepts (categories for classifying stimuli), symbols and signs (like+, and badges or flags), and Janguage. In addition to this, thinking in one way or the other, produces evidence of the involvement of a slight incipient movement of groups of our muscles and by all means, guided and operated by higher cognitive areas of the brain. Moreover. our thinking is largely affected through the inducement of sets(kind of habit or the way used to perceive certain situations). These induced sets are quite often the results of our interests, directions and purposes. This set induction may result in a kind of rigidity in our thinking behaviour.
Thinking, what we consider as genuine, may be classified into Certain types like perceptual or concrete thinking, conceptual thinking, reflective thinking and creative thinking. However we can also add one more category in the name of associate thinking, including day creaming. fantasy and illusions, which is non-directed and without goals.
Reasoning is referred toa highly specialized thirking involving some well organised systematic steps for the mental exploration of a cause and effect relationship or solution of a problem. Reasoning is of two types—inductive and deductive. While in inductive reasoning we make use of many experiences and examples for arriving at a generalized principle or conclusion, in deductive reasoning we just start completely agreeing with some deduced results or principles and try to apply it to particular cases.
Problem-solving as a deliberate and serious act, involves the use of some novel methods. higher thinking and systematic scientific steps for the realisation of the set goals. The scientific steps involved may be identified as problem awareness, problem understanding, collection of relevant information, formulation of hypotheses and selection of a proper solution.
References and Suggested Readings
Bartlett, F., Thinking, New York: Basic Books, 1958.
Borirg E.C.. Langfield, HS. and Weld, H.P. (ed.), Foundation of Psychology, (Indian Edi), New York: John Wiley, 1961.
Davis, G A., Psvchology of Problem Solving, New York: Basic Books, 1973.
Fentino, E and Reynold. G., Introduction 10 Contemporary Psychology, San Francisco; W.H. Freeman & Co 1975.
Garrett, H.E.: General Psychology (Indian Edi.), New Delhi: Eurasia Publishing House, 1968.
Gates, A.G., Elementary Ps, chology (Reprint), New York: Macmillan, 1947. Gates, Al. and et. al., Educational Psvcholagy, New York: Macmillan, 1947. Gilmer, B Vonhaller, Psvcho/ogy (International Edi), New York: Harper, 1970. Mohsin, S.M , Elementary Povchology, Calcutta: Asia Publishing House, 1967.
Munn. N.L., Aa datroducrion to Psvchology (indian Edi.) Delhi: Oxford & IBH, 1967.
Ross, J.S , Ground of Educational Psychology, London: George G. Harrap & Co 195).
Skinner, C E. (Ed.): Essentials of Educational Psychology, Englewood, Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1968.
Valentine, C.W., Psychology and its Bearing an Education, London: The English Language Book Society & Methuen, 1965.
Vinacke, W.E,, The Psychology of Thinking (2nd ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974.
Wertheimer, M , Productive Thinking, New York: Harper, 1945. Woodworth R.S.. Psychology, London: Methuen, 1945.
Woodworth. R.S. and Marquis, D.G., Psvehology (Sth ed.', New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1948.
Chapter 10
MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR
What is motivation ?
We observe when a girl, while learning cycling gets bruises and cuts but she goes on to improve her performance by continued practice. Similarly an athelete may be seen to get up quite early in the morning and regularly visit the field for his continued practice irrespective of the odds of the seasons. A student may be seen to burn midnight oil as the examination draws nearer and nearer while another student of the same class at the same time may be seen enjoying the T.V. tilm or playing cards with his friends.
What makes the girl, the athlete and the students behave ina particular manner? The answer to such questions, related to ‘why’ and ‘how’ of behaviour lies in the key word ‘motivation’. Thev do or behave because they are motivated to do or behave in such manner. Motivation, thus may be regarded as something which prompts, compels and energizes an individual to actor behave ina particular fashion ata particular time for attaining same specific goal or purpose. But what is that which is responsible for the motivation of an individual. What are the real activating forces that push and pul] an individual to move or act for obtaining a specific goal? Psychologists have tried to provide some answer by naming these activating forces as needs, drives and motives. Let us try to learn about them.
Needs
Needs are general wants or desires. Every human being has to strive for the satisfaction of his basic needs if he is to maintain and actualize or enhance himself in this world.
Nothing can be said about the number of the individual needs. While some scholars hold that the number of individual needs is infinite, others have provided a dcfinite number, e.g. Murray has Given a list of thirty seven needs. In this text, for the sake of proper understanding and clarity we would like to divide the human needs into two broad categories, namely, Biological needs and Sociopsychological needs.
Biological needs: All our bodily or organic needs fall into this category. They may be further categorized as under:
(i) In this first category of biological! needs, we have need for oxygen, water and food. These needs are most fundamental for our survival and existence. Without them we can hardly survive.
(ii) In the chain of our survival and existence the other category of the biological needs includes needs like:
(a) Need for rest when tired (6) Need for being active when rested. (c) Need for sleep when deprived of it for long.
(d) Need for regular elimination of waste products from the body.
(e) Need for having an even internal body temperature.
(f) Need for protection from the threats of physical environment like hazards of weather, natural calamities, wild animals etc.
(iii) In the third category of biological needs, we can place the need for satisfaction of sex urge or desire to seek sex-experiences. Although sex urge is not essential for the survival of an individual yet it is the strongest human urge in the satisfaction of which lies his proper growth, development, adjustment and weil-being. Moreover, the satisfaction of this need and normal sex behaviour is most essential for a happy family life and the continuity and survival of the human Species.
(iv) In the last category of biological needs, we have needs that are associated with the demands of our senses. These sensory needs include the need for physical contact sensory stimulation and stimulus variability and manipulation. Although we may not die if deprived of these needs, yet they are supposed to be quite essential for our general welfare and optimal growth.
Socio-psychological needs
Under this category, we can list all those needs that are associated with the socio-cultural environment of an individual. They are acquired through social learning. Although such needs are not linked with the survival of the organism or species. yet their deprivation may lead to a psychological state seriously affecting his survival and welfare. These needs for tho sake of clarity may be classified as below:
1. The need for freedom or gaining independence: An individual possesses a craving for independence. Nature has created us free and independent as individuals and requires us to remain so. Therefore, all human beings have an urge to remain free and independent.
2. The need for security: Every one of us needs to feel secure not only to save himself from the physical dangers but also fiom sociopsychological angles he needs desirable emotional, social and economical security for his well being.
3. The need for love and affection: Every one of us irrespective of age, caste, colour and creed have a strong desire to love and be loved. Depending upon one’s age and circumstances. it may vary in kinds and nature, but a sort of emotional craving for the satisfaction of this need is exhibited universally by all living organisms.
4. The need to achieve: Every human being has a strong desire to achieve some or other things like money, fame, reputation, degree. merit position, medals, good life partner, spiritual attainment, etc.. not only for raising his status in the eyes of others but also for the satisfaction he gets out of his own accomplishment.
5, The need for recognitiun or social approval: Each one of us has an inherent desire for gaining recognition. appreciation and esteem at the hands of others. An artist may thus desire to be known for his art, a young woman may desire to be appreciated for her beauty. good manners or house keeping by fellow human beings especially the members of the group to which she belongs. A student may show this desire in surpassing other students of his class and thus gaining required social status, prestige or approval from his fellow students. teachers and parents.
6 The need for Social Company: Man is reterred to as a social animal in the sense that he has a strong urge to be with his own kind and maintain social relations with them. The real strength of this need can be felt by those individuals who are faced with social rejection or solitary confinement.
7. The need for self-assertion: Every one of us has an inherent desire to get an opportunity to rule or dominate others. It may vary in intensity from person to person but it is surely exhibited by all of us in one or other situations irrespective of age, strength and status. Some may show it to their juniors, servants, life partner or children while others may exhibit it towards their pet animals, birds, and even inanimate things like dolls or pictures This need of asserting oneself gives birth to an important motive called power motive that works as a strong determiner of one’s personality and behaviour.
8. The need for self-expression or self-actualization: We all have an inherent craving for the expression of our self and actualization of our own potentialities. An individual may have a hidden poet, musician or painter in his self and thus may have a strong desire to get his talent exhibited or nutured. In this way one wants to get adequate opportunities for the expression and development of his potentialities and subsequently he strives for and is not happy untl he gets opportunities for such expression and self-actualization.
Drives
A need gives rise to a drive which may be defined as an aroused reaction tendency or a state of heightened tension that sets up activities in an individual’ and sustains them for increasing his general activity level. The existence of a need moves or drives the individual from within and directs its activities to a goal that may bring about the satisfaction of the need. The strength of a drive depends upon the strength of the stimuli involving the related need.
Drives of any nature are divided into two categories. In the first category we have biological or primary drives such as hunger, thirst, escape from pain and sex drive. In the second category we have socio-psychological or secondary drives such as fear or anxiety, desire for approval, striving for achievement, aggression and dependence. These drives are not related to our physiological needs and therefore do not arise on account of tmbalances in the body’s internal functioning. They arise from the socio-psychological needs and are said to be acquired through social learning as a result of one’s interaction with his socio-cultural eavironment. These drives move an individual to act for the satisfaction of his socio-psychological needs which in turn proves as a reinforcer of the behaviour for the continuity and maintenance of the behaviour.
Contrary to the socio-psychological or secondary drives or biological drives are basically unlearned in nature. They arise from our biological needs as a result of a biological mechanism known as homeostasis.
For explaining the drive function, the term homeostasis was coined by W.B. Cannon, a prominent Harvard University physiologist. Cannon (1932) suggested that our body system constantly works toward an optimum level of functioning maintaining a normal state of balance between input and output. For example, when bloodsugar level drops, the brain, glands, stomach organs. and other parts of the body send out signals that activate a hunger drive and makes one hungry. After food has been consumed by the individual's body, jt returns to a state of balance. This maintenance of an overall physiological balance is homeostasis. When there is an imbalance there is a need to restore balance; thus a drive arises which in turn serves as an instigator of behaviour.
The term homeostasis used by Cannon with reference to body chemistry has now been broadened to include any behaviour that upsets the balance of an individual. The demial or failure in the satisfaction of any basic need may bring imbalance psyche state, thus arising a drive primary or secondary for initiating a behaviour.
Drives and incentives
Drives are also influenced and guided by incentives. Praise, appreciation. rewards, bonus, fulfilment of one’s needs and getting the desired objectives are some of the examples of incentives.
Incentive works as a reinforcing agent as it adds more force to a drive like adding fuel to the already ignited fire. A piece of. tofee, chocolate or ice cream or a playing toy may work as an incentive for a body to give more strength to his drive and as a result be may be further motivated to act or behave in a desirable way. Similarly a favourite food may provide an incentive for an individual to eat or a favourite movie Mav compel other individuals to go and see it. In this way drives. whether primary or secondary, are greatly affected and directed by the incentives. These incentives work more forcefully in case the organism remains deprived for long of that particular incentive.
Motives
In search for the origin of a motivated behaviour, the psychologists, aS we have already emphasized above, start from the basic needs—biological or socio-psychological. A particular need gives lise to an activating force named as a drive that moves an individual to act or behave in a particular fashion at a particular time. Drives thus work as a basic activating force behind a behaviour. However, practically, in psychological as well as day-to-day language we usually come across statements like: what was the motive behind this crime? What may be the motive of an individual to criticise or blame us? etc. These statements clearly point out that motives work as a_ basic activating force behind a particular behaviour. It makes one think as to why the terms drive and motive (which carry the same meaning) are often employed interchangeably. However, psychologists while exp aining the mechanism of behaviour have now started to concentrate on the term motive instead of the old term drive. For clarity, they have tried to define it in the following ways:
Fisher: ‘‘A motive is an inclination or impulsion to action plus some degree of orientation or direction” (Labhsingh & Tiwari, 1971, p. 72).
Rosen, Fox and Gregory: ‘‘A motive may be defined as a readiness or disposition to respond in some ways and not others to a variety of situations’’ (1972, p. 41).
Caroll: ‘A need gives rise to one or more motives. A motive is a rather specific process which has been learned. It is directed towards a goal” (1969, p. 21).
All these definitions lead us to generalize that:
1. Motive is an inner state of mind or an aroused feeling.
2. It is generated through basic needs or drives.
3. It compels an individual to respond by creating a kind of tension or urge to act.
4. It is a preparation for responding in some selective way to the satisfaction of the related need.
5. It is a goal-directed activity, pursued till the attainment of the goal.
6. A change in goal may bring changes in the nature and strength of the motive.
7. Attainment of a goal helps in the release of tension aroused by a specific motive.
8. Motive may be considered as a learned response or tendency and also an innate disposition.
Understood in this way, a motive may beconsidered as an energetic force or tendency (learned or innate) working within the individual to compel, persuade or inspire him to act for the satisfaction of his basic needs or attainment of some specific purposes.
There exists a variety of motives based on the human basic needs. For understanding the nature and role of these motives let us_ briefly discuss a few important ones.
Hunger motive
Our body’s need for food is the basis of this motive. The longer we are deprived of food, the more we feel the intensity of this motive. More often, rumbling stomach or hunger pangs (caused by the contraction of the stomach) are taken as a hunger signal. It is quite misleading because these symptoms may be produced on account of temporal conditioning caused by eating about the same every day. On the basis of the lavoratory findings, it has been now agreed that the physiological key to hunger lies in the chemical composition of the blood and a structure in the brain called the hypothalamus. There lies a sugar called glucose in our blood which helps to provide energy to the body. It can be stored tn the liver only in small quantities and for a short time. When the amount of glucose in the blood (the blood-sugar level) falls below a certain point, a message is sent to the hypothalamus which in turn alerts an organism to its need for food. After cating, when the blood sugar level has risen the hypothalamus works for the inhibition of hunger messages. Two areas of the hypothalamus that are involved in the hunger mechanism have been identified. The lateral hypothalamus controls the ‘‘on’’ switch and thus sends out hunger signals, while the ventromedial hypothalamus performs the task of inhibition by controlling the ‘‘off” switch.
The physical mechanism of hunger as explained above tries to throw light on the working of hunger motive and eating behaviour. However, our eating behaviour is too complex to depend only on blood sugar levels and the hypothalamus. Recent researches have suggested that a number of other parts of the brain such as the limbic system and the temporal lobe may also play a major role in the human hunger drive. It has also now been experimentally proved that besides the chemical composition and brain mechanism certain other personal, social cultural and psychological factors like choice or preference for a specific food, one’s biological predisposition, boredom, loneliness, nervousness, insecurity, anxiety, depression, socio cultural demands, and acquired food habits, etc., work for decidin the eating behaviour of human beings.
Thirst motive.
This drive or motive arises out of the need for quenching one’s thirst. It is found to be stronger than the food motive as we can exist without food longer than we can without water. In the case of this motive, the apparent signals (like hunger pangs in hunger motive) come from the sensations of dryness from the mouth and the throat. However, as we have seen with hunger the thirst motive goes much deeper than that. The physiological key of the thirst motive (like hunger motive) lies in the imbalance of fluid in the body tissues and hypothalamus. Imbalance of the fluid in the body has been linked to the level of salt {Sodium chloride) in the blood stream. Salt causes dehydration. A high level of salt in the blood upsets the fluid balance in the tissues which in turn need to supply fluid to the body tissues. This message is conveyed to the lateral hypothalamus and thirst drive is activated. After getting the supply of the fluid in the form of a drink etc., the body's chemical balance is restored. It activates our thirst satiety centre situated in the hypothalamus which In turn switch off the thirst drive.
In this way, it may be seen that while the chemical imbalance of the body instigate hunger or thirst motive, the centres of its control (in the form of ‘on’ and ‘off’ connections) lie in the central nervous system particularly in the hypothalamus. Similarly it may also be seen that human thirst behaviour depends not only on one’s biological predispositions.and chemical imbalance of the body tissues bul, to a large extent, it may be said to be a function of social learning. Why we drink, what we drink, when we drink and how we drink all, some how or the other, depend upon our own personal, soctal and cultural factors and environmental learnings,
Sex motive
Sex motive, although not so essential for an individual's survival like food and water, constitutes a highly powerful pyscho-physical motive. Its satisfaction results in immense happiness and well being to an individudl and as a medium of survival to the species. Where the root of the sex motive is purely biological and innate in the nonhuman animals, it is not so simple to point out the roots in humans whose sex drive is governed by both the physiological and psychological factors. Therefore, the human sex motive is termed as a complex blend of innate as well as acquired tendencies.
In most animals, sex hormones are undeniably essential in stimulating the sex drive. These hormones, the testosterone in the males and estrogens in the females, are secreted by their testes and the Ovaries. The experiments connected with the removal of the testes and ovaries in the case of male and female animals or birds or injection of the doses of the male or female sex hormones haveclearly demonstrated the extent to which secretion ot sex hormones actually determines sexual behaviour among different species.
This dependency on hormones is seen far less as we move up the phyiogentic scale from lower animals and birds to monkeys ana chimpanzies. Finally, in sexually experienced adult humans, we see sull more treedom from hormonal controls. Castrated males and ovariectomized females sometimes experience little or no decline in sex drive or satisfaction. Females may also remain sexually active after the natural decline in ovarian function that ovcurs with age (in (in the form of menopause).
In addition to the dependency on hormones, females of most species, excluding humans are sexually receptive only at certain times —when they are on heat or, in more technical language, during the estrus cycle. During this period, the female ovaries secrete a greater quantity of estrogen into her blood stream and she becomes receptive to the advances of the males. This period coincides with the occurrence of ovulation in the females and consequently may result in pregnancy.
In human beings, although the pregnancy is possible only in the estrus periods, the sex drive is not dependent upon the occurrence of an estrus cycle. In general, human females and males can be Sexually motivated at any time quite independent of the period of fertility and hormones production. Much of their motivation in the form of sexual arousal and behaviour is rooted in earlier experiences and social learning and controlled by lesions in the hypothalamus, the subcortiCal structure tn the brain.
On account of the involvement of the cortical areas of the brain, the sources for the instigation of sex drive and sexual arousal vary very much in human beings. Sometimes it is the emotional feelings of the sex partner and at other times it may be a visual, auditory, a tactile sensation, a picture or a fantasy. In practice, the sex game is more psychological than biological or organic. For example, a smell of one’s favourite perfume or even a little moonlight works wonders in stimulating Sex drive in humans. The other variables related with one’s sucio-cultural environment, sexual experience and learning also play a leading role in guiding and deciding the mode and nature of sex drive and behaviour in human beings independent of their fertility period and secretion of hormones.
Maternal motive
The behaviour involving the care and protection of the offspring by the females of a species is called maternal behaviour and the motive that energizes a female to indulge in such behaviour is called the maternal drive or motive. The maternal drive is stimulated both by the biological and psychological factors inter-related with learning. The earlier scene in this direction is dominated by the role of the hormones. The hormone progesterone has been found to be important
in Maintaining pregnancy and estrogen helps to trigger birth. Another hormone, prolactine produced by the pituitary gland, directs the mammary glands to secrete milk for the new bom.
The later period of the maternal behaviour is controlled and guided by the learning components of the maternal drive. The stimuli responsible for stimulating the maternal drive and behaviour spring from a variety of sources: from one’s physical environment, or sociocultural background, trom mother and grandmother, from observing the behaviour of friends and neighbours, from books, from movies and television, etc. One's own physical and mental health may also contribute in this direction. However, much depends upon the impact of the social learning and earlier experiences that leave an unforgettable impression on the mind of the mother justifying the finding
that being a gocd and loving mother depends considerably on having a good and loving mother.
Aggression motive
Aggression motive is related to those behaviours that are intended to inflict physical or psychological harm on others. Various views have been propounded about the origin and working of this motive. Those beheving in instinctive theory like Freud, Lorenz and Ardrey held that an aggressive motive is linked with an innate independent instinctual tendency in human beings which expresses itself in destructive and violent activities. However, this innate drive concept now stands rejected due to lack of substantial research.
From another viewpoint, aggression is caused aS a result of frustration. However, later researches have proved that it is not essential that reaction to frustration always leads to aggression. Bandura (1973) suggests that frustration generates aggression only in those people who have previously developed aggressive attitudes and actions as a means of coping with their environment. It leads us to a more accepted conclusion that aggression motive and aggressive behaviour are the product of earlier experiences and social learning. One may be aggressive because one has been brought up in the environment where he frequently observes his parents, elders, teachers and peers showing aggression towards him or others. A teacher, mother, or a friend who is rebuking or pushing some one in a fit of aggression, essentially provides a model of effective aggression to be imitated by the children. Imitation of aggression does not occur just with live models, violence or aggression shown on the television screen and described in the pages of the magazines and novels may provoke an individual toward aggression. This provoking, if reinforced, may lead him to adopt aggression as a mode of his dayto-day behaviour.
Affiliation motive
Affiliation motive directly springs from the affiliation, anced to be with other people. Why do we desire to be with other people? One
answer is the “herd instinct”, For most animals, the herd instinct jg genotically programmed. kt provides them a tendency to live together in packs, flocks or groups and as a result they get better care and protection for their welfare and survival. In human beings also the desire to be in groups may arise on account of the ‘‘herd instinct” ~the fear and anxiety of their welfare and survival. However, in their case, the arousal of affiliation motive is somewhat a complex phenomenon. Very often it is stimulated by some other needs or motives like social approval motive, recognition motive, power motive and achievement motive. As these needs or motives are connected with the socio-psychological make up of the individuals, the affiliation motive must be considered as an offspring of the early experiences and social learning.
What can lead an individual to an isolated life style or affiliated life style depends upon his experiences and interaction with his environment right from early childhood. For example, children who are raised with close family ties, show stronger affiliation motive than those coming from more loosely knit families. The neglected children or destitutes, on the other hand, may lack in the intensity of affiliation motive. In this way, the patterns of affiliated behaviour and strength of the affiliation motive may vary from individual to individual based on their earlier experiences and social learning.
Achievement motive
The need to achieve is the spring-board of the achievement motive. This desire to achieve is as basic and as natural as other biological or socio-psychological needs. However, in a competitive society or set up the desire for surpassing others or achieving more than others is intensified too much which in turn may give birth to a stronger drive or motive to achieve something or everything that is essential for beating others in the race and consequently feeling a sense of pride and pleasure in one’s achievement. The type of motivation produced by such motive for achievement has been named as achievement motivation.
Achievement motive as a term has been defined in various ways:
Atkinson and Feather: ‘‘The achievement motive is conceived as a latest disposition which is manifested in overt striving only when the individual perceives performance as instrumental to a sense 0 personal accomplishment”’ (1966, p. 13).
Irving Sarnoff: “Achievement motive is defined in terms of tho way an individual orients himself towards objects or conditions that ise does not possess. If he values those objects and conditions, and he feels that he ought to possess them he may be regarded as having a2 achievement motive. (Mangal 1983, 191).
Looking through these definitions we can say that achievement motive moves or drives an individual to get involved in the mastery of difficult and challenging performances for the pursuit of excellence .
It comes into the picture when an individual knows that his performance will be evaluated, that the consequence of his actions will be either a success or a failure and that good performance will produce a feeling of pride in accomplishment. Hence, achievement motive may be considered as a disposition to approach success or a Capacity for taking pride in accomplishment when success is achieved in one or other activity.
As far as the origin and development of the achievement motive is concerned, it can safely be said that it results from one’s early training as well as experiences and subsequent learning. In general, children usually learn the achievement motive from their parent's life style and family life. Studies have shown that children who get independent training started at an early age and get more autonomy within a Cooperative, encouraging and less authoritarian family environment, usually develop as achievement-oriented children. Later on, the experiences and learning based on the circumstances and situauions in one’s life may lead an individual to provide a level for the intensity of his achievement motive to struggle for attaining the desired standard of excellence.
Theories of motivation
What motivates human behaviour is not a simple question to be answered. Psychologists have tried to explain the process and mechanism of motivation in a number of ways. Here we discuss some of the main viewpoints.
Behaviourist’s viewpoint (need and drive reduction theory)
Behaviourists like Watson, Clark Hull and Skinner emphasize that needs and drives work as stimuli to evoke responses in the form of motivation behaviour. Explaining the mechanism, they say that a need in the form of stimulation gives birth to a drive or motive which in turn sets the motivational behaviour in motion. The reduction of the need and the associate drive, then works as a reinforcer for maintaining behaviour. This need or drive reduction hypothesis propagated by the behaviourists has been strongly opposed by psychologists who came later. However, the importance of needs and drives in controlling and guiding the motivational behaviour of humans is beyond question.
Freud’s viewpoint (instinctive theory)
Freud’s theory of motivation was based on instincts. In his last book, Outline of psycho-analysis, he asserted that Eros (life or erotic instinct) and the death instinct (Desire to destroy even ta the extent of destroying one’s self) are the ultimate cause of the motivation in behaviour. In fact life instinct, the urge for self-preservation dominates the earlier scenes of one’s life. When life instinct stops, death instinct comes into operation. For example, the lover who has failed in bis love affair may think of committing suicide. However, what moves or energizes the activities of the life instinct is the need for sexual gratification—a media to provide intense pleasure, satisfaction and meaning to one’s life. Freud maintained that from birth onwards human beings experience sex gratification and sex motive, therefore, is the ultimate sole motive that works in energising the human behaviour.
Adler’s viewpoint (social urges theory)
Without agreeing with the extreme views of Freud regarding sex as the basis of human motivation, Alfred Adler, a student of Freud advocated that human beings are motivated primarily by social urges. For maintaining his social self one requires a margin of safety besides the simple security in terms of protection from danger. He achieves this margin of safety through domination and superiority. In order not to feel inferior or small. he strives or struggles for superiority. Therefore, the struggle for achievement and status or the will to dominate are really an outgrowth of the fundamental need for security. Thus, the motivation of human behaviour may be endorsed through a single basic drive known as security drive or motive or in terms of a single need, the need for security to maintain one’s social self.
Cognitive viewpoint (Goal-oriented Theory)
Unlike the mechanistic and instinctive approaches adopted by other psychologists, the cognitive school of psychology brings into the limelight the role of cognitive factors in producing human motivation. According to this view, human behaviour is purposeful with a certain end or goal in view. An individual who aspires to reach a goal, is helped by his cognitive abilities for the development of a desirable drive or motive (tendency to move towards that goal). The achievement of the goal satisfies the individual which in turn reinforces the maintained behaviour.
The cognitive view of motivation was first brought into focus by a philosopher-psychologist William James (1842-1910) who emphasized that the concept of motivation was necessary to bring the psychomotor gap” between ideas and actions. This view was further elaborated by psychologists like George Miller advocating the construction of plans for bridging the psychomotor gap to meet certain ends. Another cue for the involvement of cognitive factors in bringing motivation comes from the theory of cognitive dissonance advocated by the American psychologist Leon Festinger. Cognitive dissonance denotes an imbalance between what we believe (cognition) and what we do (conation). It may result in a psychological discomfort to us. As a solution, we are motivated to set the imbalance right either by changing our beliefs or our behaviour. For’ example, information linking smoking with cancer and heart diseases create dissonance in chain smokers. They cannot resist the temptation of smoking, yet they are warned that cigarette smoking is injurious to their health. There is an imbalance or dissonance, involving the beliefs (cognition) and smoking behaviour. The remedy lies in a goal directed behaviour that 1s aimed to reduce the dissonance either dy stopping the excessive smoking or by refusing to believe the information about its danger.
Maslow's viewpoint (Self-actualization Theory)
In 1954 psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed that a motivational behaviour may satisfy many needs at the same time implying that an act is multi-motivated. Human needs, according to Maslow, arrange themselves in Aicrarchies of prepotency. In other words, the appearance of one need generally depends on the Satisfaction of another. They are closely related to each other and may be arranged from the lowest to the highest development of the personality. As shown in he proposed five sets of basic needs that can be arranged in a definite hierarchical order for understanding human motivation. At the bottom of the ladder are physiological needs, necessary for survival, and at the top are distinct psychological needs, Starting from the satisfaction of the physiological needs, every individual strives for the satisfaction of the other needs of higher order. This striving for one or the other level of needs causes the motivation of his behaviour. A need that has been satisfied is no longer a need. It ceases to be a motivating force and therefore, the satisfaction of one need leads an individual to try for the satisfaction of other needs. In this way the motivational behaviour of a person is always dominated not by his satisfactions but by his unsatisfied wants, desires or needs.
Self-actualization
Esteem needs
Belonging and love needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
The motivational behaviour of most of us fits well in the hierar. chical structure of necds proposed by Maslow and consequently for them a necd of a higher order does not appear until a need of a lower order 18 gratified. They can think of the other needs Only when the food and other basic psychological needs are well gratified, A hungry person cannot think of casting his vote, doing social service or attainment of salvation through remembering God. Similarly, one who is insecure or unsafe may hardly be motivated for the gratitication of love or esteem needs.
But as it happens there is room for exception in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to explain human motivation. The history of mankind may point out countless heroes, saints and other great people who have always stood for the ideals, religious or social values of life without caring for the satisfaction of biological or other lower needs.
It seems that the effects of gratification of a need are more stimulating and important than the effect of deprivation. The gratification of lower order needs motivates an individual to strive for the higher order needs. An individual, us Maslow emphasized, can actualize his potentialitics as a human being only after meeting the higher level needs like love and esteem. However. in the comphance of the hierarchical order there may arise exceptions. One may be more attracted or motivated to the satisfaction of one need at the cost of another and therefore a person can reach the top without caring for the satisfaction of lower order needs. But one thing is very clear that the need of self-actualization dominates and rules all the other lower level of needs. It seems to be the supreme aim of human life and thus works as a master motive for motivating the human behaviour. In the words of Maslow “A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poct must write, if he is to be ultimately at peace with himself. What a man can be, he must be. He must be true to his own nature. This need we may call self-actualization’” (1954, p. 46). The fulfilment of self-actualization is thus a must for an individual as he will feel discontent and restless unless he does not strive for what he or she ts fitted for.
Measurement of motives
The methods employed for the measurement of motives may be classified as direct, indirect and experimental depending upon the nature of the adopted measures or techniques.
Direct methods
In this category we may include all those methods and techniques that permit the subject to express his motives through verbal or other overt behaviour. Here the required information about the motives of an individual is gathered directly from the primary source, the subject and his natural behaviour, by directly asking him to account for his own behaviour or through naturalistic objective observation
of his behaviour. The major techniques or methods included in this category may be named as questionnaire, inventories, motivation scale, check-list, naturalistic observation, interview, autobiography and other self descriptive measures.
Indirect methods
In situations where the subject is either unaware of his motives or is determined not to reveal his real motives, the use of indirect methods 1s recommended most. The material to which the subject is exposed in the indirect measures of motives consists of fairly ambiguous or unstructured stimulus situations. Based on the mechanism of projection, the subject is expected to provide clues for his hidden or true motives by responding to these unstructured stimuli. The interpretation of these clues by the experimenter may then help, in the assessment of the subject’s true motives.
All the projective techniques like Rorschach [nk blot test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Child. Apperception Test (CAT), the Blacky pictures, Drawing completion test, Sentence completion technique, Word Association technique, Role playing and Soctodrama, etc., fall in the category of indirect methods of measuring motives.
These projective techniques provide full opportunity to the subject to project his motives and intentions in quite a structured form through responding in terms of writing some stories about the pictures shown or completing a sentence, sketching or drawmg, associating a word or playing a role. The interpretation of these structured responses depends upon the reason for giving the test. For example, if the experimenter is interested in measuring affiliation or achievement motive, the subject’s responses are evaluated in terms of how much affiliation orientation or achievement orientation it displays.
Experimental methods
Experimental methods of measuring motives consist of the measures involving objective observations under controlled condis tions. For ascertaining the real motives, here the experimenter first makes some tentative hypotheses and then tests them in the laboratory or laboratory-like conditions for arriving at some objective, reliable and valid conclusions. In addition to the investigation of the Origin and causing a behaviour involving motivation, experimental methods do also help in testing various empirical predictions based on particular motivational hypotheses. For example one may hypothesize that the persons having high achievement motive must differ in a number of predictable ways from persons with low achievement motive. In experimental testing of this hypothesis, the experimenter may collect scores related with achievement motive by introducing a projective test like TAT or Rorschach Ink blot and after that he may try to demonstrate that subjects who score high in terms of achievement motive are also faster at solving mathematical problem momorizing poems and performing some typical complex skill.
SUMMARY
Why we bchave and how we behave in a particular fashicn at qa particular moment can be understood in terms of motivation. It is one’s motivation which prompts, compels and energizes him to engage in a particular behaviour. The activating forces working in motivation mav be named as needs, drives or motives.
Needs are general wants or desires and are said to be the very basis of our behaviour. They can be broadly classified as biological and socio-psychological. Biological needs include all our bodily or organic needs like need for oxygen, food, water, rest, sleep and sex, etc. They are linked with the survival of the organism and species. Socio-psychological needs like need for love and affection, security, affiliation. self-assertion and self-actualization, etc., are linked with the socio-cultural environment and psychological make-up of an individual. Thev are considered very much essential as their deprivation may seriously affect the survival and welfare of an individual.
A need gives rise to a drive which activates an individual from within and directs its activities to a goal that may bring about the satisfaction of the need. Biological needs give birth to biological drives such as hunger, thirst and sex and the socio-psychological needs produce socio-psychological drives such as fear, anxiety. approval and achievement. Drives are also influenced and guided by incentives like praise. appreciation, rewards, bonus etc., in terms of working as reinforcing agents.
What we were used to understand by the word ‘drive’ has now been replaced by a more forceful term “motive”. It is defined as an onergetic force or tendency (learned or innate) working within the individual to compel, persuade or inspire him to act for the satisfaction of his basic needs or attainment of some specific purposes. Psychologists have identified and named a number of motives.
Hunger motive primarily arises on account of our body's need for food and the first motive on account of the need for fluid. The need regarding food or fluid is conveyed to our brain which in turn Produces the motivation behaviour involving hunger or thirst. Apart from the biological function, hunger and thirst motives are very much controlled by personal experiences and social learning.
Sex motive although having a strong physiological base in the form of hormones functioning and estrus cycle is largely affected by the variables related with one’s experience and social learning.
Maternal motive (the urge to provide care and protection to offspring) is stimulated both by the biological factors and social
of achievement motive are also faster at solving mathematical problem momorizing poems and performing some typical complex skill.
SUMMARY
Why we bchave and how we behave in a particular fashicn at qa particular moment can be understood in terms of motivation. It is one’s motivation which prompts, compels and energizes him to engage in a particular behaviour. The activating forces working in motivation mav be named as needs, drives or motives.
Needs are general wants or desires and are said to be the very basis of our behaviour. They can be broadly classified as biological and socio-psychological. Biological needs include all our bodily or organic needs like need for oxygen, food, water, rest, sleep and sex, etc. They are linked with the survival of the organism and species. Socio-psychological needs like need for love and affection, security, affiliation. self-assertion and self-actualization, etc., are linked with the socio-cultural environment and psychological make-up of an individual. Thev are considered very much essential as their deprivation may seriously affect the survival and welfare of an individual.
A need gives rise to a drive which activates an individual from within and directs its activities to a goal that may bring about the satisfaction of the need. Biological needs give birth to biological drives such as hunger, thirst and sex and the socio-psychological needs produce socio-psychological drives such as fear, anxiety. approval and achievement. Drives are also influenced and guided by incentives like praise. appreciation, rewards, bonus etc., in terms of working as reinforcing agents.
What we were used to understand by the word ‘drive’ has now been replaced by a more forceful term “motive”. {tis defined as an onergetic force or tendency (learned or innate) working within the individual to compel, persuade or inspire him to act for the satisfaction of his basic needs or attainment of some specific purposes. Psychologists have identified and named a number of motives.
Hunger motive primarily arises on account of our body's need for food and the first motive on account of the need for fluid. The need regarding food or fluid is conveyed to our brain which in turn Produces the motivation behaviour involving hunger or thirst. Apart from the biological function, hunger and thirst motives are very much controlled by personal experiences and social learning.
Sex motive although having a strong physiological base in the form of hormones functioning and estrus cycle is largely affected by the variables related with one’s experience and social learning.
Maternal motive (the urge to provide care and protection to offspring) is stimulated both by the biological factors and social
learning. The motives like aggression motive, affiliation motive and achievement motive are purely learned as they are linked with the demands of one’s environment in terms of social learning.
There are a number of viewpoints for explaining human motivation. Behaviourists put forward the need and drive reduction theory by emphasizing that need in the form of stimulation gives birth to a drive or motive which in turn produces motivation. Freud explained that the instincts (life and death instincts) are the ultimate cause of the motivation in humans. Adler remarked that human beings are motivated primarily by social urges and therefore, a human motivation can be explained only in terms of a single drive or motive named as security motive. Cognitive psychologists, with the help of their goal-oriented theory. highlighted the role of cognitive factors in producing human motivation. Psychologist Maslaw put forward a hierarchical structure of needs for explaining human motivation. The gratification of lower order needs motivates an individual to strive for the higher order needs. On the top of the hiererchi lies the need for self-actualization. In fact ii is the satisfaction of this master need that guides and controls the motivation behaviour of the humans.
Motives can be measured through direct, indirect and experimental methods. Dircct methods permit the subject to express his motives through verbal or other overt behaviour. indirect methods, involving projective techniques, are used in situations where the subject is either unaware or is determined not to reveal his real motives. Experimental methods consist of the measures involving objective observations under controlled conditions.
References and Suggested Readings
Arkes. H KR. and Garske, J.P., Psychological Theories of Motivation, Monterey Calif : Brooks‘Cole, 1977.
Atkinson, J W. and Feather, N.T. (Ed.); A Theory of Achievement Morivation, New York : John Wiley, 1966.
Bandura, A.. Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey : Prentice-Hall, 1973.
Brown, J.S., The Morivarion of Behaviour, New York : McGraw-Hill, 1961+ Caroll, H A.. Mental Hygiene—The Dynamics of Adjustment, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey : Prentice-Hall, 1969.
Fisher. V.E., An Introductionto Abnormal Psychology cited by Labh Singh & G.P. Tiwariin Essentials of Abnormal Psychology, AGRA: Vined Pustak Mandir, 1971.
Hokason, J.E., The Physiological Bases of Motivation, New York: John Wiley, 1969.
Hunt, M., Sexual Behaviour in the 1970's New York : Play Press, 1974.
Irving Sarnoff, Personality Dynamics and Development cited by Mangal S.K. in Educational! Psychology (IV ed.) Ludhiana : Prakash Brothers, 1983.
Kinsey, A.C. Sexual Behaviour in the Human Female Philadelphia : Saunders,
Kinsey,.A.C., Pomeroy, W.B. & Martin, C. E., Sexual Behaviour in Human Male,, Philadelphia: Saunders, 1948.
Maslow, A., Morivation and Personality, New York’ Harper & Row, 1954.
Mc Clelland, D.C., Atkinson, J.W., Clark R.A. & Lowell, E.C., The Achievement Motive, New York : Appleton, 1953.
Montagu, M.F A. (Ed.) Man and Aggression, New York: Oxford University Press, 1968.
Rosen, E. Fox, Ronald & Gregory, Ean, Abnormal Psychology (3rd ed.), Philadelphia : Saunders, 1972.
Schachter, S., The Psychology of Affiliation, ‘Stanford Calif: Standford Univertsury Press, 1959.
Stacey, C.L. and De Martino, M.E. (Ed.); Understanding Human Morivation (Rev. ed.) Cleveland: Howard Allen, 1963.
Valley, F.P., Motivation Theories and Issues, Monterey, Calif; Brooks/Cole, 1975.
Chapter 11
ATTENTION
Meaning
We make use of the term ‘attention’ frequently ir in our day-to-day conversation. While giving lectures in the class room, your teacher may call for your attention to listen to what he says or to look at the black-board. At a railway station or public bus station, you may hear the announcement (your attention please) meant fordrawing the attention of the passengers, telling them about the schedules of the trains or buses. In this way, in the ordinary sense, attention is taken as a power, Capacity or faculty of our mind, which can be turned on or off at will or something in kind or form that can be lent to this or that situation. However, this conception, as we will find after reading this chapter, is misconceived. Attention can never be considered as a force or some faculty of our mind. We must trv to understand it in terms of an act, a process or a function. Therefore, the use of this term as a noun is misleading. It may be better understood as a verb named as attending or a process involving the act of listening, looking at or concentrating on a topic, object or event for the attainment of desired ends. For providing & proper meaning to the term attention, let us take a look ata few definitions provided by eminent authorities on this subject.
Dumville: “Attention is the concentration of consciousness upon one object rather than upon another” (1938, p. 315).
Ross: ‘‘Attention is process of getting an object or thought clearly before the mind’”’ (1951, p. 170).
Morgan & Gilliland: “‘Attention is being keenly alive to some Specific factor in our environment. It is a preparatory adjustment for response’ (1942, p128).
Sharma, R.N.: ‘Attention can be defined as a process which compels the individual to select some particular stimulus according to his interest and attitude out of the multiplicity of stimuli present in the environment” (1967, p. 392).
All these definitions may bring the following facts into the limelight:
(i) Attention is essentially a process and not a product.
(ii) It helps in our awareness or consciousness of our environmeni.
(iii) This awareness or consciousness is selective.
(iv) At one time we can concentrate or focus our Consciousness on a particular object only.
(v) The concentration or focus provided by the process of attention helps us in the clarity of the perception of the perceived object or phenomenon.
(vi) In the chain of the stimulus-response behaviour it works as a good mediator. Properly attended stimulus yields better response. Therefore, for providing an appropriate response one has to pass through the stage of preparedness or alertness (mental as well as physical) set by the process of attention.
(vii) Attention is not merely a cognitive function but is essentially determined by emotional and conational factors of interest, attitude and striving.
The conclusion derived from the above, may thus lead us to think of attention as a process carried out through cognitive abilities and helped by emotional and conational factors to select something out of the various stimuli present in one’s environment and then bring it in the centre of one’s consciousness in ofder to perceive it clearly for deriving the desired ends.
Signs and effects of attention
How can we know that a particular individual is paying attention or not? In this concern much can be said through the observation of particular symptoms or reactions that are accompanied with the state of preparedness or alertness set by the process of attention. As one initiates into the state of attention, we may mark him turning his head, fixing his eyes or setting his ears toward the object of attention. Besides this the muscles and biological functioning of the body may be seen to be specifically prepared to the object of attention. One may adopt a specific posture or hold his breath and his expiration is less. In this way, from the observable symptoms in the form of postures, bodily conditions, facial expressions or contortions, we may say a lot about the attention or non-attention behaviour of an individual. However, for drawing more appropriate conclusions the experimenter must tryto avail of the report of introspection analysis (prepared by the subject himself). He should also try to test the validity and reliability of his conclusions by studying the effects of the efforts made by his subject by paying attention.
Some of these effects of attention may be mentioned as under:
(1) Attention helps in bringing mental alertness and preparedness. As aresult one becomes mentally alert and tries to exercise one’s mental powers as effectively as possible.
(2) Attention helps in providing proper deep concentration by focusing one’s consciousness upon one object at a time rather than two.
(3) It makes us better equipped for distinguishing or discriminating the object of attention from others.
(4) Attention acts asa reinforcement of sensory process and heips in the better organisution of the perceptual field for the maximum clarity and understanding of the obiect or phenomenon.
(5) Attention provides strength and ability to continue the task of cognitive functioning despite the obstacies put by the forces of distraction like noise and harsh weather conditions: .
(6) The attention paid to an object, event, process or phenomenon yields better results in the form of the amount and quality of learning, remembering, transfer of training. thinking, reasoning and problem-solving as well as displaying the inventive abiliues and creative functioning.
Types of Attention
Various authors have classified attention in a variety of ways but the following classification given by Ross (1951, p. 175) seems to be more agreeahle.
atention
1. Non-volitional
A enforces (sustained by instincts)
B spontaneous ( sustained by a sentiment)
2. Volitional
A. Implicit (obtained by a single act of the will)
B. Explicit ( obtained by repeated act of the will)
1. Non-Volitional or Involuntary Attention: This type of attention iS aroused without the play of will. Here we attend to an object or an idea without making any conscious efforts on our part. Mother's attention towards her crying child, attention towards the members of the opposite sex. sudden loud noise, bright colours., ete.. are examples of non-Volitional attention.
Non-Volitional attention as classified above can be aroused by Our instincts as ulso by our sentiments. The attention which is aroused by the instincts is called enforced non-volitional attention. A young man, when we remark on his sex instinct or curiosity, becomes quite attentive in his tusk. The type of attention which he pays at this time can be called enforced Non-Volitional attention.
The other sub-type of Non-Volitional attention, aroused by the sentiments is called ‘‘Spontaneous Non-Volitional” attention. It is
the result of properly developed sentiments, We give somewhat automatic or spontancous attention towards that object, idea, person round which our sentiments are formed.
2. Volitional or Voluntary Attention. Attention is volitional or voluntary when it calls forth the exercise of will. It demands the conscious efforts on our part. It is least automatic and spontancous and not given wholeheartedly like volitional attention. Usually in such a type of attention, we have a clear-cut goal before us and for its accomplishment we, with all our efforts, make ourselves attentive. Attention paid at the time of solving an assigned problem of mathe~ matics, answering questions in an examination hall, consulting the railway time-table at the time of embarking on a railway journey are some of the examples of volitional attention.
Volitional attention is further sub-divided into two categories— Implicit volitional attention and Explicit volitional attention. Whereas in the former, a single act of volition is sufficient to bring about attention, in the latter we need repeated acts of will to sustain it. When a child is assigned some mathematical sums in tbe classroom, and he does not attend to them, he is warned by the teacher that he will be punished if he does not do his assigned practice work. This can make him exercise his will power, attend to the assigned task and finish it properly. Here a single act of will is responsible for the arousing of attention. Hence wecan take it as an example of implicit volitional attention.
In explicit volitional attention, attention is obtained by repeated acts of will. One has to struggle hard for keeping one self attentive. It requires a strong will power, keen attention and strong motives for the accomplishment of the task. The attention, paid during examination days for the required preparation against the heavy odds and distraction, is a glaring example of such attention.
Factors or deternurants of attention
External factors or conditions: External factors or conditions are generally those characteristics outside the situations or stimuli which make the strongest bid for capturing our attention. Let us try to examine these characteristics.
(i) Nature of the stimulus: All types of stimuli are not able to bring the same degree of attention. A picture attracts attention more readily than words. Among the pictures, the pictures of human beings invite more attention than those of animals or objects. Among the pictures of human beings those of beautiful women or handsome men attract more attention. In this sense coloured pictures are more forceful than colourless ones. In this way, an effective stimulus should always be chosen for capturing maximum attention.
(ii) Intensity and size of the stimulus: In comparison with the weak stimulus, the intense stimulus attracts more attention of an individual. Our attention becomes easily directed to a loud sound,
a bright light or a strong smell. Similarly a large object in environment is more likely to catch our attention than a small object. A large building will be more readily attended to than a small one.
(iii) Contrast, change and variety: Change and variety strike attention more easily than sameness and absence of change. If we are talking to our students the use of maps and charts suddenly attracts their attention. We do not notice the ticking on the wall but it arrests our attention as soon as it stops. Any change in the attention to which we have become adapted, immediately captures our attention. Actually the factor-contrast or change is highly responsible for capturing attention of the organism and contributes more than the intensity, size or nature of the stimulus. If all the LETTERS on this page were printed in capitals, the capitalized word in this sentence would have no greater attention getting value than any other word. It is the contrast or change which makes it more forceful.
Novelty also attracts attention. We are compelled to attend to anything that is novel. So it is always better to introduce the change or novelty for breaking monotony and securing attention.
(iv) Repetition of stimulus: Repetition is a factor of great importance in securing attention. We may ignore a stimulus at first instance but when it is repeated several times, it captures our attention. A mis-spelled word is more likely to be noticed if it occurs twice in the same paragraph than if it occurs only once. In the class room also the particular point on which the teacher tries to draw the attention of the students is raised again and again. While giving the lecture, the important aspects of the speech are often repeated, so that the attention of the audience can be easily directed to the valuable points. But this practice of repetition should be caretully used. Too much repetition of stimulus may bring diminishing returns.
(v) Movement of the Stimulus: A moving stimulus catches our attention more quickly than a stimulus that does not move. In other words, we are more sensitive to objects that move in our field of vision. Most of the advertisers make use of this fact and try to capture the attention of people through moving electric lights.
Internal factors or conditions
How much and in what way a person will attend to a stimulus depends not only upon the characteristics of that stimulus or the favourable environmental conditions but also upon his interest, motives, basic needs and urges. Every person likes to do or to attend to those objects or activities that fulfils one’s own desires to motives and suits his own nature, interest and aptitude. Let us try or see that part played by these inner factors in securing attention of a person.
(i) Interest and attention: Interest is a very helpful fact im securing attention. We attend to obyects m which we are mterested aod we do not attend those ia which we have no mterest. [f we go to the market to buy a book, our attention will be captured more by book shops than by cloth and shoe shops A_ boy interested in hockey will be more attentive in watching a hockey match than the football or the volleyball matches played .at the same time on the adjacent grounds. A wise teacher ts able to secure the attention of bis students ff he tres to make his lesson interesting by connecting it with their basic needs, drives and interests.
(ii) Motives: The basic drives and urges of the individual are very important in securing bis attention. Phirst. hunger, sex. curiosity, fears are some of the important motives that exercise delinite influence upon attention. A hungry pergon 1s sure to notice the smell of cooking food. Tho maa who fears asnake will definitely attend to all things resembling the snake. Sex drive occupies a unique place among the different drives. Even the most inattentive student in the class can be made to sit on the edge of his chair if the teacher announces that he is going to talk about the sex practices of American Hippies. Nowadays ta the world of advertisement sex is the drive that has been extremely exploited. We can see the shapely girls in bathing suits to sell such unrelated items as tyres. nut bolts and tractors.
(iii) Mental set: Besides our interests and motives the mental set is an important factor of securing attention. Mental set means the tendency or bent of the whole mind. A person always attends to those objects towards which his mind has been set. A person waiting for the letter of bis beloved can recognize her envelope among a buge lot of the envelopes. Similarly, on the day of examination the slightest thing concerning the examination easily attracts the attention of the students. All this happens because persons concerned possess a definite bent of mind and consequently their attention is immediately directed towards the related objects.
Span of attention
While defining attention, we have emphasized that in a strict psychological sense only one object, idea, or fact can be the centre of consciousness at one particular moment and consequently we can attend to only one thing ata time. However, it is found with some people that they can attend to more than One or even many tasks at the same time. While writing a letter they are scen attending the telephone, watching time from the wall clock and responding with smiles to*the approach of somebody else. In other cases, immediately after entering the room or hall the individuals are found to give a detailed account of their perception in terms of the number of chairs and fans, persons present, the pictures hanged, the colour of the walls or curtains, etc. In this way, people may possess the ability to grasp a number of objects or in other words to attend toa number of stimuli in one short presentation. This ability of an individual is evaluated in terms of the span of his attention which differs from person to person and even situation to situation in the same person. Therefore, the term span of attention may be defined in terms of the quality, size or extent to which the perceptual field of an individual can be effectively organised tn order to enable him to attend toa number of things in a given spell of short duration.
Historically speaking, it was Sir William Hamilton who. in the year 1859, first of all tried to perform experiments on the span of attention. For his experiments he spread out marbles on the ground before his students and concluded that on an average the span of visual attention is limited to 6-7 marbles i.e., we are unable to see more than 6-7 marbles at a time. However, if these marble pieces are arranged in groups or units, we can attend to a greater number of the marbles. Further experiments were performed by psychologists like Jevons (1871), Glanville and Dallen Back (1929), Woodworth and Shalsberg (1968), etc.
Experiments to study the span of visual attention are carried out with the help of an instrument known as Tachistroscope. Ordinarily in our college laboratories we use a Falling door type Tachistroscope. It consists of a wooden screen having a window or hole in the middle. Digits, letters or small patterns written or printed on cards may be inserted in the apparatus for being seen through the hole or window. Its exposure is quite short (generally 1/10th second) which is regulated by a movable falling shutter. The subject is shown the cards through the hole for the fixed exposure time. He may then be asked to record as to what he perceived and the number of digits, letters, etc., correctly reproduced, may , then, be considered as the measure of one’s span of visual attention.
For the measurement of the other, sensory span of attention, different techniques may be employed. For example, the span of auditory attention may be measured by tapping a number of times: and asking the subject how many taps he has heard.
Shifting or fluctuation of attention
While paying attention towards an object, event or phenomenon, it is not possible for us to hold it continuously with the same intensity for a longer duration. In course of time when the centre of our consciousness either shifts from one stimulus to another or from one part of the same stimulus to another part, this is called the shiftmg of our attention. Sometimes the centre of our consciousness keeps on fluctuating from one stimulus to another or on the different parts of a stimulus, this is known as fluctuation of attention. Fluctuation of attention also involves rapid change in the intensity of the attention. The intensity increases or decreases ranging between the paying of attention and no attention or, at least of less attention.
The reason for the shifting and fluctuation of our attention lies tn thé division of the field of perception or consciousness at a particular moment. Consciousness at a particular moment may be divided into two parts, central and marginal. At the time when our attention ig on the wall clock and consciousness is focused on it, the other objects and activities going on inside the room remain within the reach of marginal consciousness. This helps us in becoming partly conscious or aware of them. Both these fields of perception or consciousness are interchangeable. The object at a moment, go under the marginal consciousness or even beyond that. Consequently the subject of attention generally goes on changing making the process of attention as quite flexible and dynamic.
Historically, the phenomenon of fluctuation of attention was experimentally recorded the first time by a psychologist named Urbantschitsch (1875). While testing the auditory sensation he observed that the subject was not able to hear the tick continuously of an alarm clock kept at a distance. At times, he was able to hear the tick of this clock, but at other times the tick disappeared from his attention.
The study of fiuctuation of visual attention can’ be experimentally made in the psychological laboratory with the help of a device called Masson’s Disc. This disc consists of a circular card-board having four or five patches of ink put in a line along one radius .
‘When the disc is rotated on an electric or mechanically run wheel, each dot appears as a Circle to the subject. The subject is asked to concentrate on any one of the blackish circles on the rotating disc and to report when the circle is clearly seen and when it becomes less clear or blurred. The subject is told to raise his finger when it is clear and put it down when it becomes blurred till it becomes clear again and he raises his finger again.
Division of attention
While reading a book, the attention is centred around the topic or the material in hand. In case there is a favourite piece of music coming from the nearby radio set then there may arise a number of situations. In one case, the individual may attend to the music and consequently the reading is given up. In the second case, he may deliberately attempt to ignore the music and thus may be able to concentrate on reading. In the third case, there may be all confusion and mess where he can neither attend to his study nor be able to enjoy the music. In the fourth case, he may be found quite capable of paying attention simultaneously to both the stimuli, reading as well as music. It is the Jast situation where the problem of the division of attention arises. In this case, attention is divided between two tasks. If more than two tasks ure attended and performed simultaneously then the attention will have to be divided among these tasks.
Many researchers have tried to study the effect of the division of attention on the work product. It has been found that the work products suffer less if both the tasks are simple and similar but in the case of difficult and dissimilar tasks, the division Of attention proves disadvantageous. No matter the amount, the division of attention surely results in deterioration of both quality and quantity of nearly all the tasks attended and performed simultaneously by an individual. It is very rarely that division of attention produces no effect. It has happened only in exceptional cases of individuals like the famous figure of the late Hardayal and mathematics wizard Shakuntalaji or in case when except for one, the remaining tasks can be performed automatically requiring the least or no attention.
Sustained attention
It one desires to be successful in the operation of a task, he has to begin with paying attention or concentrating his energies an the operation of that task. But it is the beginning of a process and not the end. After paying initial attention, care is to be taken to hold it for a long enough duration. The individual should be absolutely absorbed in handling that task, unmindful of anything else going on. without getting disturbed in the least. This needed activity is named sustaining of attention. In the words of Woodworth (1945, p. 48), To sustain attention is to Concentrate one’s activity continuously upon some object or happening or problem,”’ Thus, in the case of sustained attention, there is no wandering. The individual attention always remains on track and the activity proceeds systematically without any serious distraction. The most striking examples of such sustained attention may be seen through the activities of a hunter who is settling for the opportune moment to strike or an astronomer sitting with his eyes fixed on a particular star while looking through his telescope or a mathematician busy in solving a problem for a long time.
Truly speaking, if one needs to achieve the required objectives within a reasonable time, he must try to pick up the habit of paying sustained attention. One must be used to concentrate on the activity one is doing. A student who cannot keep his attention fixed for a reasonable period is sure to lag behind in his studies. An artist has to strive for sustained attention so that he can finish his desired piece of art. A writer, a poet, a musician all have to care for sustained attention.
In holding the attention for long there is need for creating genuine interest of the subject in the task which he is doing. All the internal as well as external factors of getting attention (emphasized earlier in this article) can prove quite helpful in sustaining of attention. Therefore, every care is to be taken for making the best use of them. Moreover, the factors which create distraction and put obstacles in the path of holding the attention long. should be removed. For obtaining better results, the individual whose attention we wish to be sustained, should be made to work under most favourable environmental conditions and anything which may cause him disturbance mentally and emotionally should be minimised. Moreover, the will power of the person should be adequately developed and he should be made to struggle hard for acquiring the set objectives and higher ideals in his life.
Distraction
When we are attending to an object or activity, there are things in the external environment as well as inside ourselves that try to turn our attention away from that object or activity. These things are called distractors which interfere with our attention. Distraction, as a psychological term, has been defined by H.R. Bhatia in the following way:
“Distraction may be denied as any stimulus whose presence interferes with the process of attention or draws away attention from the object which we wish to attend. (1968, p. 139).
The sources of distraction can be roughly civided into two partsexternal and internal factors. Among the external or environmental factors the more common and prominent are noise, music, improper lighting, uncomfortable seats, unfavourable temperature, inadequate ventilation, defective methods of teaching, improper use of teaching aids, defective voice of the teacher and his improper behaviour etc. These sources of distraction vary very much. They affect the individual according to his own mental set and personality characteristics. The conditions which cause distraction to an individual may prove helpful in sustaining attention to others.
Therefore, the common notion that the external unusual environmental Conditions always hinder the progress of the work is misleading. People are found working better in a noisy environment. Many of us Can Concentrate better on studies while the radio is playing. Actually speaking, the source of distraction lies more commonly in the individual himself than in outside environmental conditions. Internal distractions such as emotional disturbances, ill-health, boredom, lack of motivation, feelings of fatigue or interesting thoughts unrelated to the matter in hand have more effect than the everyday external distractors. If one is keeping normal health and does not suffer from unusual mental worries and emotional disturbances, then no power on earth can distract his attention in case he has determined with a strong will ta proceed on his course, Most of us are in the habit of offering Jame excuses in the name of outside distraction, for our unwillingness and lack of determination.
But from this discussion, it should not be taken for granted that external factors of distraction have little significance and should not be cared for at all. In the midst of external distraction, the individual has to struggle hard ta overcome it. He puts in greater energy to keep the object before his mind. Surely and certainly, there should not be such misutilization of energy which otherwise can be saved for achieving higher aims. Therefore. great care should be taken to get away trom all possible environmental causes of distraction. The working situations and environmental conditions should be so modified and adjusted as to provide adequate working facilities and a healthy congenial atmosphere for an individual whose attention in the work we wish to capture and sustain.
SUMMARY
Attention is closely related to the processes and products of learning. [t refers to some deliberate and conscious efforts on the part of an individual to select something out of the various stimuli present in his environment and bring it in the centre of his consciousness in order to perceive it clearly for achieving the desired ends.
Attention denote: a state of physical as well as mental preparedness and alertness on the part of an individual as may be adjudged through keen observation of his body postures and positions, physioJogical changes and studying yields of the attended Jearning or problem solviag activities.
Normally, we can attend to only one thing at a time. However, there are people who can attend to more than one or even many tasks at the same time. Thev are said to possess a larger span of attention (i.e. ability to organise a larger perceptual field in a given spell or short duration). Experimentally the span of attention can be studied with the help of an instrument named Tachistroscope.
Attention cannot be held continuously with the same intensity for a longer duration. In course of time when the centre of consciousness shifts or fluctuates from one object to another or from one part of the object to another part, it is termed as shifting or fluctuation of attention. This study of fluctuation of visual attention can be experimentally made with the help of a device called Masson’s Disc.
The phenomenon of division of attention is concerned with the task of paying attention simultaneously to a number of stimuli in one’s environment. The division of attention adversely affects the products of attention. However, it may be seen that work products suffer less if the tasks attended to are simple and similar in com: parison with the difficult and dissimilar ones.
Attention may be broadly classified as Volitional or Voluntary (maintained by one’s will power) and non-Volitional or involuntary (without the play of will). Volitional attention is of two types: Implicit and explicit. While in implicit, a single act of volition is sufficient to bring about attention, in explicit we need repeated acts of will to sustain it. Non-Volitional attention also comes under two categories: Enforced non-volitional aroused by the instincts and spontaneous non-volitional aroused by sentiments.
Attention is guided and controlled by the external as well as internal factors. External factors lying in one’s environment may be named as : nature of the stimulus, intensity and size of the stimulus, contrast, change and variety, repetition of stimulus, movement of the stimulus, etc. Internal factors represent the factors lying within the person himself like his interest, motives and mental set.
For better results in learning one has to hold his attention for a desir ble long duration without getting disturbed in the least. This needed activity is named sustaining of attention. One has to make serious and deliberate efforts for sustaining one’s attention by taking care of all the factors responsible for maintaining attention and eliminating or reducing the forces of distraction.
Distraction represents a sort of interference with our attention. The source of distraction may be external (e.g. noise, improper lighting, uncomfortable seats, etc.) and internal (e.g. lack of motivation, emotional disturbances, ill-health, boredom or fatigue, etc.). For deriving useful ends, one should try to overcome all such forces of distraction.
References and Suggested Readings
Bhatia, H.R., Elements of Educational Psychology (3rd ed. reprint), Calcutta: Orient-Longman, 1968.
Broadbent, D.E., Perception and Communication, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1958. Collins, Mary and Drever, James, Experimental Psycholeyy (3rd ed.), London: Methuen, 1930.
Dumville, B., The Fundamentals of Psychology (3rd ed.) Iondon: University Tutoria} Press, 1938.
James, W., Principles of Psychology (Vol. 11) New York: Holt 1890
Morgan, J.B. and Gilliland, A.R., An Introduction to Psychology, New York: Macmillan, 1942.
Ross, J.S., Ground Work of Educational Psychology, London: George G Harrup & Co, 1951.
Sharma, R.N., Educational Psychology, Meerut: Rastogi Publication, 1967.
Shanker, Udai, Advanced Educational Psychology, New Delhi: Oxonian Press 984. ,
White, Alan, R., Attention, Oxford: Blackwell, 1964. Wocdworth, R.S., Psychology, London, Methuen, 1945, Woodworth, R.S. (Ed.); Experimental Psychology, New York: Holt, 1954.