1. PSYCHOLOGY MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE

Introduction
Defining Psychology:
conclusion regarding definitions;
Meaning of the term behaviour;
Nature of the Subject Psychology;
Scope of Psychology;
Branches and Fields of Psychology;
Utility of Psychology;
Summary

2. DEVELOPMENT OF - PSYCHOLOGY—A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Introduction;
The Early: age of Pre-Scientific Psychology;
The Modern Age of Scientific Psychology Structuralism,
Functionalism.
Behaviourism ;
Gestalt Psychology; Psychoanalysis;
The recent trends in Contemporary: Psychology—Humanist Psychology,
Transpersonal Psychology, Cognitive Psycholosy;
Summary,
References and Suggested Readings.

3. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Introduction;
Introspection method;
Naturalistic observation;
Experimental method;
Differential method;
Clinical method
Psychophysical methods
The method of minimal changes or the methods of limits;
The method of constant Stimuli or the method of right and wrong cases;
The method of average error;
Conclusion regarding methods;
Summary; References and Suggested Readings.

4. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR

Introduction;
Nervous system;
The neuron;
The neural Impulse;
The central nervous system:
The brain,
Localization of the brain functions,
Spinal-cord;
The peripheral nervous system;
The influence of nervous System on human behaviour,
The endocrine system Impact of the functioning of endocrine glands;
Summary;
References and Suggested Readings.

5. HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

Introduction; What is heredity? The role of genes; Determination of sex—boy or girl? The twins mechanism; What is environment ? The role of heredity and environment in the development of personality and behaviour; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.

6. INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS

Introduction; Understanding and defining instincts; Instincts and Reflex actions; Classification of instincts; Defining emotion; Characteristics of emotions; Kinds of emotions; The identification and measurement of emotions—Introspective reports; Observation of facial expressions ; Measurement in terms of physiological changes; Physiology of emotions; Theories of emotiom—The James-Lange theory, The Cannon-Bard theory, Cognitive theory, Activation theory: Conclusion about theories; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.

7. SENSES AND SENSITIVITY

Introduction; Meaning and types of Senses; Sensation and Sensitivity; The detection and discrimination of stimuli; Absolute threshold; The method of constant stimuli; The method of forced choice; Difference threshold and Weber's law, Sense of vision; structure and functioning of the eye; Visual adaptation; Colour vision, colour mixture; colour blindness; Theories of colour vision-—Young Helmholtz theory; Hering’s opponent process theory; The Sense of hearing—The characteristics of sound, the structure and functioning of the ear; Theories of hearing—the place theory; The frequency theory the volley theory; The chemical senses —senses of smell; Sense of taste; The skin senses; Sense of touch or pressure; Sense; of temperature; Sense of pain; The body senses—The Kinesthetic sense; The vestibular Sense; Summary References and Suggested Readings.

8. PERCEPTION AND ILLUSION

Introduction; Meaning of perception; Laws of perceptual organisation;, Perceptual constancy; Perception of space—Visual monocular cues; Binocular cues; Perception of distance; Perception of direction; Perceptual illusions; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.

9. THINKING, REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Introduction; Define thinking; Nature of thinking; Elements of thoughts —tools of thinking; Role of Rigidity; Set; direction and interest in thinking; Types of thinking; Reasoning—meaning and detintion; types of reasoning; Problem Solving—meaning and definition, Scientific method of problem-solving, Summary, References and Suggested Readings.

10. MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR

What is motivation, NeedsBiological needs; Sociopsychological needs; Drives; Drives and incentives; Motives; Hunger motive; Thirst motive; Sex motive; Maternal motive; Aggression motive; Application motive; Achievement motive; Theories of motivationFreud’s instinctive theory; Adler’s social urges theory, Goal oriented theory, Maslow’s Self-actualization theory; Measurement of motives; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.

11. ATTENTION

Meaning; Signs and Effects of Attention; Types of attention; Factors or determinants of attention; Span of attention; Shifting or fluctuation of attention, Division of attention; Sustained attention; Distraction, Summary; References and Suggested Readings. ;

12. LEARNING

Meaning and Nature; Types of learning; Verbal learning; Motor learning: Concept learning; Problem-solving; Serial learning; Paired associzte learning, Theories of learning —Trial and error theory of learning; Laws of learning—Practical implications of Thorndike’s contributions; Theory of classical conditioning; Principies of classical conditioning, [miplications of classical conditioning; Operant conditioning; Shaping; Implications of the theory of Operant conditioning; Theory of insightful learning, Implications of theory of insightful learning; Transfer of training or learning-meaning; Tynes of transfer; Theories of transfer; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.

13. MEMORY-REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING

What is memory ? Mechanism of the process of memorization; Remembering and memory: Types of memory—Immediate memory; Short term memory; Longcerm memory; The study of memory; Learning method; Saving method; Economy in memorizing—Recitation method, Whole and part methods; Methods of distributed and massed practice; Training in memory; What is forgetting; Ebbinghaus’s curve of Forgetting, Types of forgetting; Theories of forgetting —The trace decay theory; The interference theory; The repression theory; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.

14. INTELLIGENCE

Introduction; Defining intelligence; Theories of intelli genceUnitary theory, Multifactor theory; Two factor theory; Group factor theory; Vernon's hierarchical theory; Guilford’s model of intellect; Conclusion about theories of intelligence; Nature of intelligence; Effect of heredity and environment on intelligence; Distribution of intelligence; Individual differences in intelligence; Intelligence and changes in age; Intelligence and sex differences; Intelligence and racial or cultural differences; Assessment of intelligence; Individual verbal tests; Individual performance tests; Group verbal tests; Group Non-verbal tests; Concept of Mental age and I.Q.; The constancy of I.Q.; The Classification of I.Q.; Mentally retarded; Gifted; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.

15. APTITUDES

Meaning and nature of aptitudes; Aptitude-Ability and achievement; Intelligence and aptitudes ; Aptitude and interest; Measurement of aptitudes; Utility of aptitude; tests; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.

16. PERSONALITY

Meaning and Nature; Definitions: Distinguished features and characteristics of personality; Theories of personality, Type approachHippocrates Kretschmer; Sheldon; Jung; Trait approach — Allport; Cattell; Type-cum-trait approach—Eysenck’s theory; Developmental approach — Freud's _ psychoanalytic theory; Adlers theory Carl Roger’s Self-theory; Dollard Miller’s Learning theory of personality; Bandura & Walters Social learning theory; Assessment of personality — Difficulties in the measurement of personality Observation, Situational tests; Questionnaire; Personality inventory, Rating scale Interview, Projective techniques—The Rorschach Ink-blot test; TAT; CAT; Word associatiun tests; Sentence-completion test; Summary: References and Suggested Readings.

PREFACE

This book bas been written for use as a basic text book in an introductory course in General Psychology or as a book of general and practical interest for those who venture to peep into the realm of a most useful and fast growing subject, Psychology. The students and people belonging to other fields and disciplines will also find the book informative as well as stimulating.

Indeed it is a difficult task to present all the basic essential aspects of - such a vast subject like Psychology into a limited number of chapters and pages of a brief text. However, an attempt is being made to present what is essential both from the angle of the scope of the subject as well as the

needs and demands of the under-graduate and post-graduate courses of Universities.

Throughout the text, I have tried to make the subject as readable and stimulating as possible. The terms and concepts have been adequately illustrated within their descriptions as well as through the Glossary at the end of the text. Each chapter has been provided with a compact and concise summary along with the relevant references and suggested readings. I express a deep sense of gratitude to the various Writers, the views and opinions of whom I have freely incorporated in this book. I am also grateful to my colleagues and my students who have been a source of constant inspiration to me. I also owe a debt of gratitude to my wife Dr. (Mrs.) Uma Mangal and dear Deepak Gupta who assisted me in the preparation of the manuscript and making the drawings of the illustrations and figures.

I hope that the book will prove its worth and be of benefit to all those for whom it has been specifically designed. Any suggestions for its improvement will be gratefully acknowledged and appreciated.

S.K. MANGAL Ist January, 2010

1. PSYCHOLOGY—MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE

The subject Psychology is becoming more and more popular day by day. The number of colleges and students opting for the study of this subject, at the graduate and post-graduate levels, is yearly increasing in almost all the Universities of our country. The reason for this rapid progress is explained in detail in chapter two. Psychology is an offspring of the subject Philosophy. With the passage of time, the subject of psychology has undergone a change from one of sheer speculation to that of scientific procedure. The gradual divergence of this subject from Philosophy to Science has been responsible for the change in its meaning and concept from time to time as may be evident from the following discussion.

Defining Psychology

I. In terms of the study of the soul: In order to define the subject Psychology let us first trace its origin. It stems from the most mysterious and philosophical concept, the soul. Etymologically, the very word psychology means the study of the soul on account of its derivation from the two Greek words, psyche (Soul) and logos (a rational course or a Study).

2. In terms of the study of the mind: What is soul? How can it be Studied? The inability to answer such questions led some ancient Greek philosophers to define psychology as ‘‘study of the mind’”’. Although the word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, it also faced the same questions such as: What is mind? How can it be studied” etc., and consequently this definition was also rejected.

3. In terms of the study of the Consciousness. Failure to define the terms soul and mind persuaded the philosophers and psychologists to search for some other suitable definitions.

William James in his book Principles of Psychology published in 1890 defined psychology as ‘the description and explanation of state of consciousness as such’’.

William Wundt (1832-1920) who established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany and his disciple Edward Bradford Titchener also concluded to define psychology as the science of consciousness. According to these psychologists, the description and explanation of the states of consciousness is the task of psychology which is usually done by the instrument introspection —process of looking within.

This definition was also rejected on the grounds that (i) it has a very narrow vision on account of its not talking about the subconscious and unconscious activities of the mind, (ii) the introspection method for the study of the conscious activities of the mind proved the most subjective and unscientific method, and (iii) it could not include the study of the consciousness of animals.

4. In terms of the study of behaviour: From the 19th century onwards, with the advent of the modern era of scientific investigation and thought, psychology began to be defined in terms of the study of “behaviour.

The first man to define psychology as the Science of behaviour ‘as an English psychologist, William McDougall. In his book Physiological Psychology published in 1905 he wrote ‘‘psychology may be best and most comprehensively defined as the positive Science of the conduct of living creatures’. Later on in 1908, in his book Introduction to Social Psychology he added the word behaviour to his definition and finally in his book An Outline of Psychology gave the following meaningful definition:

“Psychology is a Science which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole.”’ (1949, p. 38).

In the same period, an American Professor Walter Bowers Pillsbury in his book Fssentials of Psychology published in 1911 gave the same behavioural definition of the term psychology in the words: “Psychology may be most satisfactorily defined as the Science of human behaviour.”’

However, in later years, in 1913, J.B. Watson, the father of the “Behaviourist School proposed to elaborate the concept of the term behaviour including in it both human and animal behaviour and consequently he defined psychology as ‘“‘the Science of behaviour’’ (taking into account the human as well as animal behaviour).

Taking cues from the earlier works, Contemporary psychologists and various other Writers have explained and defined psychology as Science of behaviour using a somewhat different vocabulary as follows:

N.L. Munn says “Psychology is a Science and the properly trained psychologist is a Scientist, or at Jeast a practitioner who uses scientific methods and information resulting from scientific investigation (1967, p. 4). Similarly, Desiderato, Howieson and Jackson write ‘‘Psychology can be broadly defined as the investigation of human and animal behaviour and of the mental and physiological processes associated with the behaviour’. (1976, p. 5).

Conclusion regarding definitions

The above account of the definitions regarding the subject psychofogy clearly reveals that the meaning and concept of this subject has frequently changed its shape based on its dependence upon philosophical or scientific thinking. Commenting over this aspect Woodworth (1948) says ‘‘First psychology lost its soul, then its mind, then it lost its consciousness. It still has behaviour of sort.”

Although even at this final stage there seems no agreement over universal definition of psychology, yet the definitions may generally be viewed to centre around a common pivot of behaviour. Consequently it may be concluded that psychology is a science of behaviour or scientific study of the behavioural activities and experiences. The questions which remain unanswered at this stage are:

(i) What do we actually mean by the term behaviour ?

(ii) What is the nature of the subject psychology? Is it a science? If yes, then what kind of science is it?

Meaning of the term behaviour

The term behaviour is taken in its totality connoting 4 wide and comprehensive meaning as detailed below:

(a) “Any manifestation of life is activity” says Woodworth (1948) and behaviour 1s a collective name for these activities. Therefore, the term behaviour includes all the motor or conative activities (like walking, swimming, dancing etc.), cognitive activities (like thinking, reasoning, imagining, etc) and affective activities (like feeling, happy, sad and angry, etc.).

(b) It includes not only the conscious behaviour and activities of the human mind but also the sub-conscious and unconscious. Conser quently it covers not only the overt behaviour but also the covert behaviour involving all the inner experiences and mental processes.

(c) It is not limited to the study of the human behaviour. The behaviour of the animals, insects, birds and even plants ts also covered in the subject psychology. Therefore, when we talk about the study of the behaviour in psychology, we mean to study the behaviour of all living organism in all walks of their life,

in a nutshell the term behaviour refers to the entire life activities and experiences of all the living organisms.

Nature of the subject psychology

{¢ is an accepted reality that the nature of the subject psychology is quite scientific. This fact has been properly recognized by the eminent psychologists and thinkers as may be inferred out of tho definitions of psychology (in terms of the scientific study or science of behaviour) given by them in the earlier pages of this chapter. However, let us try to demonstrate why the subject psychology should be called as a science. In general, we may call the nature of a subject scientific, if it fulfiis the following criteria:

(i) Possesses a body of facts and is able to support it through universal laws and principles.

(ii) Emphasizes on search for truth.

(iii) Does not believe in hearsay, stereotypes or superstitions. (iv) Believes in cause and effect relationships.

(v) Adopts the method of objective investigation, systematic and controlled observation and scientific approach.

(vi) Stards for the generalization, verifiability and modifications of the observed results or deduced phenomena.

(vii) Helps in predicting the future developments.

(viii) Is able to turn its theory into practice by having its applied aspect.

Let us summarize the nature of psychology in the light of the abovementioned criteria.

1. Psychology possesses a well organized theory which is supported by the relevant psychological laws and principles.

2. It has its applied aspects in the form of various branches of applied psychology like industrial, legal, clinical and educational psychology.

3. It believes that every behaviour has its roots, the factors of its causing, influencing or nurturing.

4, Subjective ideas and opinions have little weight in carrying out the study of behaviour in the subject psychology. It emphasizes on the search for truth by advocating objectivity, reliability and validity in the assessment of the behaviour.

5. The methods and techniques employed in the study of the behaviour in psychology are quite scientific. The steps like analysis of the behaviour, formulation of hypothesis, objective observations oF controlled experimentation, deduction, verification and géneralization of the results etc., provide the solid base for scientific method and approach in the subject psychology.

6. The results of the study of behaviour always stand for theif verification in similar other conditions by other experimenters and observers. These results may be accepted, modified or altered in thé light of the recently available data and findings.

7. The established facts, principles and laws of the behaviour if the subject psychology enjoy universal applicability in practical life, other bodies of the knowledge and future researches in its own fields

8. The appropriate description as well as quantification of behaviour is possible through the help of psychology. We may make trustworthy predictions about the organism in the light of the studied behaviour.

On the basis of thé above characteristics, it may be established beyond doubt that psychology is a science. Its nature is quite scientific and not philosophical or mysterious as was supposed to be in days of yore.

What kind of science is psychology?

We can divide all the Sciences into two broad categories Positive and Normative Sciences. While physical and life sciences are termed as positive sciences, the subjects like logic, philosophy and ethics are included in the category of natural sciences.

In contrast to normative sciences, positive sciences study facts, describe ‘what is’ and have least or no concern with ‘what ought to be’.

Psychology in this sense unquestionably falls in the category of positive Sciences.

What kind of positive science is psychology ?

The question here is, can we equate psychology, the science of behaviour with the positive sciences like Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Loology, Astronomy and Mathematics, etc.? The answer lies in the negative. "In comparison with these sciences, psychology is not so perfect and developed a science. In fact, it is a behavioural science which deals with the behaviour of an organism. This behaviour is quite dynamic and unpredictable. Methods of its studying are also not so absolute and objective as adopted by the natural sciences. On the other hand physical or chemical reactions studied by the natural sciences are always predictable on account of the nature of the material and study processes. As a result, the studies in natural sciences are bound to be more exact, accurate and objective than the studies of behaviour in psychology.

Consequently, it is not proper to equate psychology with the physical and natural sciences. Although psychology is striving hard in its technique and approach to be as objective, exact and accurate as possible, it has yet to attain the position and status of these sciences. Thus in its true sense, it can be categorised as a developing positive science rather than a developed one.

Hence, in the ultimate analysis for understanding the meaning and nature of the subject psychology, we can define it as a developing positive science of behaviour.

Scope of psychology

What do we mean by the scope of a subject? The scope of a subject can usually be discussed under the following two heads:

1. The limits of its operations and applications.

2. The branches, topics and the subject matter with which it deals.

The field of operation and applications of the subject psychology is too vast. It studies, describes and explains the behaviour of the living Organisms. Here the terms ‘behaviour’ and ‘living organisms’ carry unusual wide meanings. Behaviour is to be used to include all types of life activities and experiences—whether conative, cognitive or affective, implicit or explicit, conscious, unconscious or sub-conscious of a living organism. On the other hand, the term living organism 1s to be employed to all the living creatures created by the Almighty irrespective of their species, caste, colour, age, sex, mental or physical state. Fhus normals, abnormals, children, adolescents, youths, adults, old persons, criminals, patients, workers, officials, students, teachers, parents, consumers and producers belonging to different stock, spheres and walks of human life all are studied in the subject psychology. Moreover, the studies in psychology do not limit themselves to the study of human behaviour only but also try to encircle the behaviour of the animals, insects, birds and even plant life.

In this way, where there seems some life and we have living Organisms, psychology may be needed for the study of the activities and experiences of these living organisms. We know that the living organisms as well as their life activities are countless and consequently, no limit can be imposed upon the fields of the Operation and applications of the subject psychology.

Branches and fields of psychology

The subject matter of the subject psychology can be grouped into Gifferent branches tor the sake of convenience and specialized study. First, we divide it into two broad categories, namely, “Pure Psvchology and Applied Psychology.

Pure psychology provides the framework and theory. Its contents deal with the formulation of psychological principles and theories. It suggests various methods and techniques for the analysis, assessment, modification and improvement of behaviour.

In applied psychology, the theory generated or discussed through pure psychology finds its practical shape. Here we discuss ways and means of the applications of psychological rules. principles. theories and techniques with reference to the real practical life situations.

The abovementioned pure and applied aspects of the subject psychology can be further grouped into various branches. Let us first mention some of the branches of pure psychology.

A. BRANCHES OF PURE PSYCHOLOGY

I. General psychology: It is relatively a large area or field of psychology which deals with the fundamental rules, principles and theories of psychology in relation to the study of behaviour of normal adult human beings.

2. Abnormal psychology: It is that branch or ‘field of psychology which describes and explains the behaviour of abnormal people in relation to their own environment. The causes, symptoms and syndromes, description and treatment of the abnormalities of behaviour form the subject matter of this branch.

3. Social psychology: This branch of psychology deals with the group behaviour and inter-relationships of people with other people. Group dynamics, likes and dislikes, interests and attitudes, social distance and prejudices of the people in their personal and social relationships form the subject matter of this branch.

4. Experimental psychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the ways and means of carrying out psychological experiments following scientific methods in controlled or laboratory Situations for the study of mental processes and behaviour. It picks up animals, birds and human beings as subjects for these experiments.

5. Physiological psychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the biological and physiological basis of behaviour. The study of the internal environment and physiological structure of the body, particularly brain, nervous system and functioning of the glands in relation to the conative, cognitive and affective behaviour of the human being form part of the subject matter of this branch.

6. Para-psychology: Deals with extra sensory perceptions, cases of re-birth, telepathy and allied problems.

7, Geo-psychology: This branch or field of psychology describes and explains the relation of physical environment particularly weather, climate. soil and landscape with behaviour.

8. Development psychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the processes and products of the process of growth and develooment in relation to the behaviour of an individual from birth to old age. For convenience, it 1s further sub-divided into branches or fields hke Child psychology, Adolescent psychology and Adult psychology.

B. BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

I. Educational psychology. It is that branch of applied psychology which tries to apply the psychological principles. theories and techniques to human behaviour in educational situations. The subject matter of this branch covers psychological ways and means of improving all aspects of the teaching/learning process including the learner, learning process, learning material, learning environment and the teacher.

2. Clinical psychology: This branch of applied psychology describes and explains the causes of mental illness or abnormal behaviour of a patient attending the clinic or hospital and suggests individual or group therapy for the treatment and effective adjustment of the affected person in society.

3. Industrial psychology: This branch of applied psychology tries to seek application of the psychological principles, theories and techniques for the study of human behaviour in relation to industrial environment. It includes the topics or contents that are useful for improving the ways and means of knowing the taste and interests of the consumers, advertising and sale of products, selection training and placing of personnel, solving labour problems, establishing harmonious relationship between the emplcyee and employer, strengthening morals of the workers and increasing production etc.

4. Legal psychology: It is that branch of applied psychology which tries to study the behaviour of the persons like clients, criminals, witnesses etc; in their respective surroundings with the help of the application of psychological principles and techniques. It contains the subject matter for improving the ways and means of detection of crimes, false witnesses and other complex phenomena. The root causes of the crime, offence, dispute or any legal case can be properly understood through the use of this branch of psychology and subsequently proper reformatory and rehabilitation measures may be employed.

5. Military psychology: This branch of psychology is concerned with the use of psychological principles and techniques in the world of military science. How to keep the morale of the soldiers and citizens high during war time, how to fight war of propaganda and intelligence services, how to secure better recruitment of the personnel for the armed forces and how to improve the fighting capacities and organisational climate and leadership etc.. are the various topics that are dealt with in this branch of psychology.

6. Political psychology: This branch of psychology relates itself with the use of psychological principles and techniques in studying the politics and deriving political gains. The knowledge of the dynamics .of the group behaviour, judgment of the public opinion, qualities of the leadership, psychology of the propaganda and suggestions, the art of diplomacy, etc., are some of the key concepts that find place in the subject matter of the branch political psychology.

In the preceding pages, an attempt has been made to demarcate the limits and boundaries of the subject psychology by pointing out its fields of operations and applications as well as enlisting its branches or fields of psychology. However the account submitted is by no means complete. Psychology has surpassed all other branches of knowledge in its application to the fields of human endeavour in providing the maximum output with the least input.

Utility of psychology

1. In the field of Education: Psychology has contributed a great deal towards the improvement of the processes and products of education. [t has helped in the asscssment of natural abilities and acquired characteristics. Theories of learning, motivation and personality, etc. have been responsible for shaping and designing the educational systems according to the needs and requirements of the students. The application of psychology in the field of education has helped the learners to learn, teachers to teach, administrators to administer and educational planners to plan efficiently and effectively.

2. In the field of Medicine: Psychology has proved its worth in the field of medicine and cure. A doctor, nurse or any person who attends the patient needs to know the science of behaviour to achieve good results. Behaviour counts much more than the medicines and this behaviour can only be learnt through psychology. The belief that sickness whether physical or mental may be caused by psychological factors has necessitated the use of psychology. It has removed a lot of superstitions in the diagnosis as well as cure of mental and physical sickness. Psychology has contributed valuable therapeutic measures like behaviour therapy, play therapy, group therapy, shock therapy, psychoanalysis, etc., for the diagnosis and cure of patients suffering from psychosomatic as well as mental diseases.

3. In the field of Business and Industry: The use of psychology is increasing day by day in the field of business management and industry. Whether it may be in the field of salesmanship, manufacturing policy, or advertisement one has to study the psychology of the consumers by applying the psychological principles of needs, motivation, interest, suggestion and individual differences, etc. Psychological researches and their uses have yielded good results in all the ureas telated to business and industry. They have provided the most suitable ways for the selection, training and placement of the persons working in the world of business. It has increased working capacity and efficiency of both man and machine, helped in the establishment of harrconious relationship between the employer and employee, manufacturer and consumers resulting in the maximum economy and output.

4. In the field of Criminology: Detection of crimes and dealing with criminals have been greatly influenced by psychology. The old adage, tooth for a tooth and eye for an eye, holds no ground today in dealing with offenders and criminals. No criminal is such by nature but circumstances lead him to the maladaptive and criminal behaviour. He may be reformed, rehabilitated and made a useful organ of society if handled properly by making use of psychological knowledge and researches. The use of psychology has thus resulted in a change of attitude in the general public as well as civil and judicial authorities in dealing with so-called bad elements and criminals.

5. In the field of Politics: Politics and politicians have benefited much from the use of psychology. Psychology of group behaviour, group dynamics, social distance, propaganda and leadership etc., have provided various techniques for gaining popularity, leading masses and achieving political gains in terms of proving a successful politician, efficient administrator and providing a functionable government.

6. In the field of Guidance and Counselling: Knowledge of psychology helps in providing valuable guidance and counselling to persons seeking solutions to their problems of adjustment in the field of education, employment and personal life. A guidance personnel, counsellor, tries to assess all the essential aspects of the behaviour and potentiality of the person concerned through various psychological measures and techniques and then suggests as well as tries possible ways and means to solve his difficulties.

7. Inthe field of Military Science: Military Science also makes use of the principles and techniques of psychology. Psychology helps in the selection, traming, promotion and classification of defence personnel. Cold war diplomacy is maintained with the help of psychological propaganda, rumours and conversing. In fighting the enemy, the morale ot the defence personnel and of citizens must at all costs be high and us can only be achieved with the help of psychology of suggestion. sight and confidence. It is no exaggeration to say that today wars are fought, continued and won not only with men and material but tu a great extent through psychology.

8. In the field of Adjustment and Mental Health: Psychology helps: to adjust one’s self, with other people and things in the environment and thus paves the way for securing good mental health.

9. In the field of Human relationships and World peace: By trying to understand humun nature and the needs and interests of our fellowbeings with the help of psychology, one is able to maintain harmonious relationship with others. The maintenance of relationships and social adjustment, further helps in not only achieving national integration but also the objectives of world solidarity and international peace.

10. In the field of Self-development: Psychology helps the individual to know his assets and limitations, abilities and shortcomings, habits and temperament, etc. The understanding of oneself may lead one to set the level of his aspiration, change his habits, seek self-control and strive for his adequate development and progress. It may help im proper catharsis and training of emotions, building of proper sentiments and character, development of problem-solving and decisionmaking abilities, and self-actualization leading to a well balanced and integrated personality.

In this way, it can be visualized that psychology has a wide field of application and utility. There is no profession in the world where we do not have opportunities of utilising the principles and techniques ot psychology. Children or adults, normals or abnormals, males or females, rich or poor, educated or uneducated belonging to all castes, colours or creeds. knowingly or unknowingly, do make use of psychology and may derive more benefits through gaining proper training in this subject. There is no corner of ones life which cannot be illuminated or glorified with the help or knowledge of psychology. It helps the individual to grow and develop in its totality with complete resonance to his environment to achieve happiness and contribute towards social progress and development. Ina nutshell, where there is any living organism, environment and behavioural response, the need for study of the behaviour and the subject competent to perform this study will always be felt and where there is any craving or desire for self-improvement, adjustment, happiness and social progress, we will have to call for the available or otherwise discovered services of the subject psychology.

SUMMARY

Psychology is the legitimate child of his mother philosophy. However, with the passage of time its nature has undergone a change from sheer speculation to the scientific procedure. Defined first as the study of soul in its history of evolution, it has been known gradually as the study of mind, study of consciousness and finally study of behaviour. Today it is considered as the Science of behaviour (when ,behaviour is taken in its comprehensive meaning involving all types of behaviour of all living organisms).

Nature of psychology is quite scientific and not philosophical or mysterious as supposed to be considered in days gone by. Like sciences, it believes in cause and effect relationship, utilizes observation, experimentation and other scientitic methods for its study, possesses a universally accepted body of facts and believes in the modification and alterations in its principles through future researches and findings. However, it is not so perfect and developed a science as the other natural and physical sciences. In fact it is a developing behavioural science that is trying hard to become as much objective, exact and accurate as possible to be on a par with the developed sciences. Therefore, it is termed as a developing positive science (and not as a science) of behaviour.

Scope of psychology is too wide. It studies, describes and explains the behaviour of all the living organisms. Living organisms and their life activities are countless. Therefore no limit can be imposed upon the scope of the subject psychology. It has many branches and fields of studies. For convenience. it may broadly be divided as pure and applied psychology.

In pure psychology we generate theories and discuss principles which find their practical shape in applied psychology. Where in pure psychology we study the branches like general psychology, abnormal psychology, social psychology, experimental psychology. physiological psychology, para-psychology, geo-psychology, developmental psychology, Clinical psychology, industry psychology, legal psychology, military psychology, political psychology, etc., are ‘included in the broad field of applied psychology.

Psychology as a subject of studying, explaining and understanding of behaviour has proved quite useful in many walks of life. Its main contributions may be summarised as below:

It has contributed much to the improvement of the processes and products of education.

- It has high-lighted the importance of good behaviour to the patients, removed a lot of superstitions and provided valuable therapies in the field of medicines.

—It has high-lighted the importance of the knowledge of consumer’s psychology and harmonious inter-personal relationship in the field of commerce and Industry.

—It has helped in detection of crimes and dealing with criminals.

—It has proved useful to the politicians and leaders to learn the — qualities of leadership for leading the masses.

—It has provided valuable help in relation to Guidance and Counselling, educational, personal as well as vocational,

—It has contributed much to the field of military science for improving the resources and operations.

—Finally it has helped human beings to learn the art of understanding their own behaviour, seeking adjustment with their self and others and enhancing as well as actualizing their potentialities to the utmost possible.

References and Suggested Readings

Desiderato Otelis, Howieson D.B. & Jackson, J H.: Javestigating BehaviourPrinciples of Psychology, New York: Harper & Row, 1976, p. 5.

Guilford, J.B. (Ed.); Fields of Psychology, New York: Van Nostrand, 1966. James Ww; Principles of Psychology, (2 Vols) New York: Henry Holt & Co, 1890, James, W: Psychology (Briefer course’, New York: Collier, 1962.

Keller, F.S.: The Definitions of Psychology, New York: Appleton Century, 1937. McDougall, W; Psychology—the Study of Behaviour, New York: Henry Holt, 1912.

McDougall, W; An Outline of Psychology , London: Methuen (13th Ed.), 1949, p. 38.

Munn. N.L.; Introduction to Psychology, Delhi: Oxford & IBH, (Indian Ed.) 1967, p. 4.

Pilsbury, W.B.: Essentials of Psychology, New York: The Macmillan Co. 1911. Watson, J B.; Psychology as a Behaviourist Views It, Psyche. rev. 1913 Vol. 20.

Watson, J.B.. Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviourist, Philadelohia: J.B. Lippinc Otta Co. 1919.

Watson J.B.; Behaviorism, London: Kegan Paul, 1930. Woodworth, R.S.; Psychology, London: Methuen, 1945. Woodworth, R-S.; Contemporary Schools of Psychology, London: Methuen, 1948.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGYA HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Historical background of a subject not only presents a fascinating story of its gradual development but also throws light on different ideologies pointing out different meanings, concepts, approaches and objectives of the subject from time to time as advocated by the eminent scholars individually or collectively. The same is true with the subject psychology also. In the following pages an attempt ts made to have a glimpse at the history of the subject psychology under some. major heads as given below:

A. The Early age of pre-scientific psychology.

B. The Modern age of Scientific psychology.

C. The Recent trends in contemporary psychology,

A. THE EARLY AGE OF PRE-SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY

How we behave and why we behave so, are questions that have aroused curiosity from time immemorial. In the earliest period of the history of psychology, they were answered quite unscientifically merely on the basis of superstitions and speculations as follows:

1. It was believed that a person’s behaviour was the result of his fate which was bound to be influenced by the movements of the planets. In case we knew the position of planets at any particular moment, we could tell and predict the behaviour of the person by evaluating his horoscope. Besides the role of planets, demons, spirits, ghosts and other supernatural forces were also held responsible for varying human actions. In this way, the cause and forms of human behaviour were being located in something outside the human being.

2. The Greek philosophers are credited to look inside the human beings for clues to behaviour. Socrates believed that inquiry into the nature of the cosmos is futile. As a result he tried to adopt a questionanswer method for peeping into the nature of man. Plato drewa sharp distinction between mind and bady, assigning the former by far the key role for generating behaviour. Aristotle's concept ot the soul proved a corner stone in psychology for centuries. He viewed the ‘soul’ or the ‘psyche’ as meaning ‘'life’’ and considered the mind as a living moving phenomenon that directs the activities of the body. However he considered mind and body as united and thus brought psychology into the realm of Biology.

3. After the fall of the Roman empire, the precepts of the Catholic Church forced the individuals to explain behaviour once again as a result of evil spirits and demons. Later on as a result of the Renaissance in the seventeenth century there arose a revolt against the superstitions, dogmatism and witchcraft. In the middle of the seventeenth century Descartes a French mathematician and philosopher led the revolt by propagating the theory of dualism. According to this theory, mind and body are separate entities. The body is merely a machine that works automatically but human beings however possess a mind in addition to their bodies. Mind, rather than being automatic is capable of free ‘thought, imagination and memory. Therefore, human behaviour can be eaplained through the mode of inter-actions between the mind and the body. Another point, from the angle of historical importance in Descartes’s teaching was his belief in innate ideas i.e. Certain necessary truths or axioms which he supposed was inherent In man’s nature.

4. The existence of innate ideas and concept of dualism propagated by Descartes gave birth to a lot of controversy and criticism which in turn paved the way, at the end of the seventeenth century, for the doctrine of critical empiricism as advocated by the British philosophers like Joh Locke and Kant, etc. After a lot of inquiry into the question of how the mind comes to acquire knowledge, Locke rejected the notion of innate ideas. He maintained that the mind of a child is a ‘tabula rasa! or clean slate. All knowledge is derived from experience which is transmitted through the sense organs. He also gave birth to a burning dispute, (that still goes on) whether behaviour is the result of heredity or environment.

In the latter half of the eighteenth century, Kant propagated that behaviour is the result of experiences derived from two sourcesthings as they are in themselves and the mind. Things, in themselves, can never be known as they are; they can be known only as they appear in experience,| determined by the forms of our thought. Neither the world nor the self can be known to the human mind in its true nature. Therefore, with the study of psychology, an empirical science, we cannot get true metaphysical knowledge, that can provide us only empirical knowledge. The material within the purview of psychology is not reducible to quantitative terms and is therefore not susceptible to the exactness of the treatment that characterize true science.

5. The viewpoints of Locke and his successors gave birth to associationism in Great Britain. It was the first school of psychology. Daniel Hartley, Sir William Hamilton, James Mill, John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer are known as the architects of this school. According to this doctrine, there is a direct connection between sensation and idea. If sensation has often been experienced together, the corresponding ideas will tend to occur together; if A has been associated with B, C and D in sensory experience, the sensory experience A, occurring alone will tend to arouse the ideas of B, C and D which accompanied it. (Heidbreder, Edna, 1971).

6. Along with the views of empiricists and associationists in the eighteenth century, there sprang a new wave of psychological thought propagated by naturalists lke, Rousseau. Pestalozzi and Froebel. Yhey tried to revolt against too much intellectualization brought about by rationalists and empiricists. They insisted on the role of feelings and emotions and rejected the notion that man is essentially a creature of ideas and reason.

7. Quite contrary to the doctrines propagated by empiricists and Naturalists, there came the conception of Faculty Psychology (the theory which holds that soul or psyche is endowed with a number of powers like reasoning, thinking, remembering, etc.) propagated by the German thinkers like Christian Wolff in the first half of the eighteenth century. The faculty psychology was opposed and replaced by Herbartian psychology propagated by a nineteenth century German professor Johann Friedrich Herbart:‘ One of the most important contributions of this psychology was the doctrine of apperception. According to this doctrine, new ideas may thrust the old or unimportant ones below the threshold of consciousness. In this way, ideas once derived from experience ure never destroyed. The accumulation of such imhibited ideas is called the apperceptive mass. In acquiring new ideas we have to relate them to those in the apperceptive mass. Mental life or behaviour of the individual is, thus, according to Hertart, a struggle between ideas, each of which is active, each of which tries to remain in consciousness, and each of which tends to repel all ideas except those with which it is compatible or gets introduced. The doctrine of apperception made Herbart to think of mental phenomena in terms of mental mechanics, and also in quantitative terms. He wrote mathematical formulae to state the laws of the mind for the explanation of behaviour.

In this way during the pre-scientific era, psychology was gradually developed from the Superstitions and Cosmos level to the Herbarts’ conception of a quantitative psychology passing through the doctrines of speculation, rationalism, empiricism, naturalism and associationism.

The middle of the nineteenth century thus witnessed the end of the period of unscientific psychology and placed psychology on the same footing as other sciences to be called as a science of behaviour.

B. THe Modern AGE OF SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, with the influence of the great studies in the field of Physics, Chemistry, Zoology, Geology and other natural sciences, it was being felt that human behaviour should now be studied through scientific methods instead of speculation which could not be tested under iaburaiory conditions. While explaining how the study of human behaviour should be performed, the thinkers of this age presented their independent views giving birth to different systems or schools of psychology. Let us have a glimpse of these different schools with respect to their viewpoints and history of evolution.

Structuralism: The man most responsible for the evolution of psychology into a scientific discipline is Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), a German professor, who opened the worlds’ first psychological laboratory in Leipzig in 1879 with the sole purpose of the systematic Study of the mind. For this purpose he focussed his experiments on conscious experience involving one’s thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions and ideas. As he emphasized on the analysis of the components of consciousness (supposed structure of the mind) his approach to psychology is named as Structuralism. Wundt and his students performed experiments in the laboratories by using the art of introspection or self-observation. The subjects were usually asked to report exactly what they were experiencing at the moment, they were exposed to the stimulus like light, colour, sound or the feel of an object. The psychologists performing experiments also worked as the subjects for the observations and recording of their own perceptions and feelings and then presenting the analysis of the activities of the mind.

Leipzig lab produced most of the leading psychologists. One of the well known products was Edward Bradford Titchener, a British by birth, who became professor of psychology at Cornell University in America. According to him psychology may be regarded as the science of consciousness or the study of experience. The consciouseness or experience can be broken or analysed into three basic elements; physical sensations. feelings and images (such as memories and dreams), For example, when we report perception experiences of a banana, we try to combine physical sensation (what we see) with feelings (our likes or dislikes for banana) and with images (past experiences with other bananas).

In this way, Wundt and his followers like Titchener. tried to provide a systematic study of the mind through the study of its structure (identifying the basic units of consciousness or experience along with the combinations in which they occur). Thus they all are said to be belonging to the school of structuralism.

Meanwhile, in the coming years, this school of structuralism came in for a lot of criticism because of the introspection method it chose to adopt. This method ultimately failed to provide objective and reliable information for scientilic studv.

Functionalism : Through the efforts of structuralists, psychology began to be recognised as an independent science capable of carrying out a Systematic study of the mind. It paved the way for other useful scientific ideas regarding the study of human behaviour. Consequently, there emerged a new school of thought known as Functionalism.

William James (1842-1910), the father of American psychology, is regarded as one of the first members of the functional school of psychology. Strongly influenced by the Darwinian theory and his own interest in anatomy, physiology and medicine he adopted a biological approach to the study of mind and led the field away from structuralism. He declared that there was definitely something wrong in Wundt’s and Titchener’s approach. Consciousness or experience cannot be broken up into elements, there is no way to separate ideas, thoughts, sensations or perceptions. Structuralism does not reveal anything about what the mind reaily does or how it goes about doing it. Knowing the composition or structure of the mind is not nearly as important as understanding its activities or functions. Therefore, James, through his doctrine of functionalism, advocated the theory of mental life and behaviour. He considered the mind to be a recent development in the evolutionary process, the function of which was to aid man’s adjustment to his environment The consciousness or mental life, according to him, is a continuous and flowing unity, a stream that carries the organism in its adaption to the environment. Our minds are constantly weaving associations, revising experience, Starting. stopping, jumping back and forth in time for adding to our functional abilities to adapt to our environment. Elaborating his viewpoints, he further concluded that habits are nothing but the functions of the nervous system. When we repeat an activity a number of times, Our nervous systems are altered so that the next time we do it automatically without much thought involved.

In the subsequent years of the 19th and 20th centuries, ideas ropagated by William James were strengthened on more scientific ootings by functionalists like John Dewey (1859-1951) James Row land Angell (1869-1949), J.M. Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike and R.S. Woodworth.

Behaviourism : John B. Watson put forward an entirely new doctrine named as behaviourism quite contrary to the views propagated by structuralism and functionalism. In his book Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It (1913) he concluded that the whole idea of consciousness is absurd. Consciousness cannot be proved by any scientific test, for consciousness cannot be seen, nor touched, nor exhibited in a test tube. Even if it exists it cannot be studied scientifically, because admittedly it is subjected only to private inspection. Therefore, if we intend to make psychology a science of behaviour, we should concentrate only on the observable and measurable behaviour. We have to discard altogether not only the concept of consciousness but also all the mentalistic notions like soul, mind, mental life, images and ideas, etc.

Consequently, behaviourism as a method of studying the behaviour focussed its attention totally on the overt or observable behaviour. For this purpose it tried to reduce all of man’s activity, including his thinking, feeling and willing to the level of that behaviour which could be observed and objectively recorded. In this way, a

behaviourist is not interested in the feeling of fear because it is not measurable but he pays attention to the changes in heart rate and blood pressure which are the effects of fear and can be objectively measured. The theory of behaviourism as propagated by Watson was in fact based on the findings of the Russian psychologist Ivan Palvov (1849-1936) the propagator of the theory of classical conditioning.

In his classic experiment, Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell by substituting that sound for the sight and smell of meat and concluded that all behaviour is a response to some stimulus in the environment. Watson tried to apply this approach in the field of human behaviour. In his famous experiment with an 11 month old child named Albert he conditioned his behaviour to fear a rat by substituting the rat for a loud sudden noise. He concluded that behaviour is merely the result of a response to some environmental stimulus. How we behave and why we so behave can be successfully demonstrated and explained through habit formation or conditioning. Thus conditioning through environmental influence and not the hereditary endowments or innate differences are responsible for shaping the behaviour of a child.

Behaviourism. in this way, tries to project human beings as little more than a rather complex machine which responds in a particular set fashion to a particular kind of stimulation. Behaviour of an individual may, thus, be supposed to be controlled by environmental forces and not by the hereditary endowments or innate differences.

The strong conviction about the stimulus response, automatization and environmental influences made Watson to assert boldly in 1926 as below:

‘‘Give me a dozen healthy infants, well informed and my own specified world to bring them up in and I will guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant chief and yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.”’ Behaviourism of Watson and his disciples, thus, brought a new era in the field of psychology by making it somewhat materialistic, mechanistic, deterministic and objective like most of the physical and natural sciences. However, it suffered from a number of drawbacks, limitations and short-comings. For this reason it has been subjected to criticism and being modified and refined in a number of ways by the contemporary psychologists. Commonly labelled as neo-behaviOurists as we are going to discuss them somewhere in this chapter.

Gestalt psychology

The reaction against structuralism and functionalism was not confined to America. In Germany it gave birth to a new school named as Gestalt psychology quite distinct from behaviourism. The most prominent members of this school where Max Wertheimer (18801943), Kurt Koffka (1886-1941), Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) and Kurt Lewin (1890-1947).

The Word Gestalt is a German noun. The nearest English translation of Gestalt is ‘‘Configuration”’’ or more simply ‘‘an organised whole” in contrast to a collection of parts. Therefore Gestalt psychology is opposed to the atomistic and molecular approach to behaviour. According to it, an individual perceives the thing as a whole and not as a mere collection of its constituents or elements. To a Gestalt psychologist, the meaning of sensation or percepticn is always related to the total situation. According to them, perception always involves a problem of organisation. A. thing is perceived as a relationship within a field which includes the thing, the viewer and a complex background incorporating the viewer’s purpose and previous experiences. Gestalists also rejected the mechanistic approach to behaviour as advocated by the behaviourist through a. simple stimulus-response connection. They asserted that there lies definitely a sort of organisation between the stimulus and response which helps in forming a new gestalt (an organised whole). For example, when looking at a tree, what 1s seen is a tree. It may be that a tree consists of colour, brightness and a form but when perceived by the mind all these components become a pattern, or a gestalt. The Gestalists further claim that when the components of a thing are brought together by the mind something new even more valuable and comprehensive than the original components may emerge consolidating the statement that the ‘‘whole is different from the sum of its parts’. As a result the human behaviour is characterized as an intelligent behaviour rather than a simple stimulus-response mechanization. An individual perceives the situation as a whole and after seeing and evaluating the different relationships in relation to the available environment takes the proper decision in an intelligent way although quite often all of a sudden. Gestalt psychology used the term ‘insight’ to describe this type of human behaviour and summarized the behavioural process under the following three steps:

(a) Perception of the situation as a whole.

(b) Seeing and judging the relationships between various factors involved in the situation.

Gestalt psychology, in this way, stood strongly in opposition of the traditional psychology comprising structuralism, functionalism and behaviourism. Specifically they deplored the “‘brick and mortar” concept of structuralismmeaning elements “‘bricks’’ bound by association ‘“‘mortar’’ and were equally dissatished with the stimulus-response conditioning or machine like explanation of human behaviour.

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis as a system or school of psychology was the brainchild of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a Viennese. physician... This movement put forward altogether different views quite contrary to structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism or Gestalt psychelogy for explaining human behaviour. Let us have an idea of these views:

1. The World of Unconscious. Freud claimed that there is more to mental life than consciousness. The conscious part occupies only the one-tenth portion of the total mental life. In fact, there is an even stronger force underlying behaviour, the unconscious. This vast part of the mental life of human beings remain hidden and usually inaccessible. It contains all the repressed wishes, desires, feelings, drives and motives many of which relate to sex and aggression. This hidden treasure of the human mental Iife is responsible for most of his behaviour. The key to the solution of most of behavioural problems lies in bringing the unconscious to the conscious level.

2. Psychoanalytic method: Freud gave tremendous importance to the long forgotten or repressed childhood experiences for the determination of many problems of adult behaviour. He put forward an unusual method known as the psychoanalytic method for the solution of the behavioural problems. This method involves the process of analysing the unconscious behaviour. For this purpose, Freud advocated the following techniques.

(a) Free Association: By this technique the affected individual is made to lie on a couch and say anything that comes into his or her mind no matter how trivial or ridiculous it may seem.

(B) Dream Analysis: According to Freud, the dream is essentially a disguised satisfaction for desires that have been repressed during waking life. These repressed desires or experiences are released symbolically in dreams. The analysis of these dreams can reveal the unconscious mind and thus may take to the roots of the abnormalities.

(c) Analysis of the daily psychopathology: The repressed desires or experiences lying in the unconscious can also be revealed through dayto-day psychopathology in terms of the slips of the tongue and slips of the pen, forgotten names and forgotten appointments, lost gifts and mislaid possessions.

3. Structure of Psyche: Freud further invented three concepts, the Id, Ego and Super ego for explaining the structure of psyche and used them in providing a basic structure to the human personality and basis of his behaviour.

A. The id is the deepest and most primitive part of the human personality. It consists of the man’s instinctive tendencies or primitive drives towards sexual satisfaction or pleasure seeking activities and violence or destruction. It knows no reality, follows no rules and considers only the satisfaction of its needs and drives.

B. The ego develops out of the id and acts as an intermediary between three sets of forces i.e., instinctual demands of the realities of the external world and ethical moral demands of the super ego.

C. The super ego is the ethical moral aspect of the psyche. It is ideafistic and does not care for realities. Perfection is its goal rather than pleasure seeking or destruction.

All behaviour, according to Freud, can be understood in terms of the dynamic equilibrium between id, ego and super ego. The id demands to satisfy its needs and appetites while the ego tries both, to control the id in terms of reality and to appease the super ego. The well adjusted person is governed by his ego, the anxious neurotic by guilt stemming from his super ego; the psychopath by his id. The aim of psychoanalysis is to restore the balance : ‘Where id was’, there shall ego be’ (Freud, 1935).

4. Psycho Sexual Development: According to Freud sex is the life urge or fundamental motive in life. All physical pleasures arising from any of the organs or any of the functions are ultimately sexual in nature. Sexuality is not the characteristic of only the grown-up. Children from the very beginning also have sexual desires. This, he termed as infantile sexuality. A child passes through the following different stages with respect to his psycho sexual development:

(a) The oral stage: According to Freud, mouth represents the first sex organ for providing pleasure to the child. The beginning is made with the pleasure received from the mother’s nipple or the bottle. Thereafter it is used to derive pleasure by putting anything candy, stick, his own thumb, etc.

(b) The Anal Stage: At this stage, the interest of the child shifts from the mouth (as the erotogenic zone) to the organs of elimination i.e. anus or the urethra. He derives pleasure by holding back or letting go of the body’s waste material through the anus or urethra. This stage, generally, ranges from two to three years.

(c) Genital Stage: This phase starts from the age of four years with the shifting of the child’s interest from the eliminating organs to the genitals. At this stage children come to note the biological differences between the sexes and derive pleasure by playing and manipuJating the genital organs. This stage, according to Freud, may give birth to a number of complexes like Deprivation and Electracomplexes in girls and Castration and Oedipus complexes in boys. Deprivation complex is the result of the feeling generated into the minds of the little girls that they have been deprived of the male organs by their mothers... Castration complex is generated in boys through the fear of being deprived of the male organs certainly as a result of the threat received from the elders in the form of cutting off the organ if they did not leave the habit of playing with it. About oedipus and Electra phases Freud says that they are the results of the sexual attraction or pleasure the children receive in the company of the opposite sex parent. In case the like sex parent frustrate the desire, expresses his or her resentment and is not friendly to the boy or girl, the child may be likely to develop oedipus. or electra complex by loving more the opposite sex parent and rather hating the like sex parent.

(d) The Latency stage: This period starts from six years in the case of girls and seven to eight years in the case of boys and extends upto the onset of puberty. At this stage, boys and girls prefer to be in the company of their own sex and even neglect or hate the members of opposite sex.

(e) The Phallic stage: Puberty is the starting point of the phallic stage. The adolescent boy and girl now feels a strange feeling of strong sensation in the genitals and attraction towards the members of the opposite sex. At this stage they may feel pleasure by self-stimulation of the genitals, may fall in love with ones own self by taking interest in beautifying and adorning their own body organs and may be drawn quite close to the members of the opposite sex even upto the indulgence of sex relations.

In this way, Freud through his psycho-analysis doctrine put forward quite new dimensions in the field of psychology. Its influences in terms of the totality of human behaviour (including conscious, subconscious and unconscious behaviour), structure of pysche, the concept of repression, catharsis ia the form of revealing the unconscious, the psycho-sexual development and providing sex its rightful place in the realm of human behaviour will always remain praiseworthy and immemorable. In the course of later developments in psychoanalytical movement, an association for the development of psycheanalysis was formed in 1902. The personalities of this school became famous either by virtue of their efforts in advocating Freud's point of view or bec..use of the establishment of their own psychoanalytic systems bascd upon their own views. Two systems, namely, individual psychology established by Alfred Adler (1870-1937) and analytical psychology established by Carl Jung (1875-1961) are worth mentioning In _ these systems, it was tried to provide a substitute in the form of some general urge in place of sex (which in their opinion was judged to be overemphasized by Freud). Adler provided this substitute in terms of the self-assertion or power seeking motive and laid emphasis on the individuality of the man by advocating the proposition of the life style. Jung. on the other hand, stressed on replacing the sex urge by the more comprehensive term libido or the life urge.

The other mentionable, neo-Freudians (or betfer known as ‘‘neo-Adlerians) of the modern age have been Freud's daughter Anna, Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan, Erich Fromm, Erik Erickson and Heinz Hartmann, etc. With the efforts of these personalities, there have been modifications in the traditicnal psycho-analytical approach, particularly, in terms of de-emphasizing the role of sex and stress on the role of Society.

C. THE RECENT TRENDS IN CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGY

As we have seen in the preceding pages, it has been the practice or tradition on the part of the followers of different schools like Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviourism, Gestaltism, and psychoanalysis to focus on the weaknesses of other schools and spend a good deal of energy trying to prove a contrary point. Quite opposite to this trend, the contemporary psychology of today witnesses an electric approach in dealing with human behaviour by accepting the fact that the different viewpoints or schools help in one way or the other in studying the complex human behaviour by throwing light on some of the other aspects.

However as a matter of pin-pointing some most influensive forces working in the field of contemporary psychology we can name behaviourism and psychoanalysis as the two major forces. The other major forces in the field. may be further named as Humanist psychology, Transpersonal psychology and Cognitive psychology. We have already talked about the former two forces, now let us discuss the remaining ones.

Humanist Psychology

This new school of psychology reflects the recent trends of humanism in psychology. The personalities like Abraham Maslow, Cavlar Rogers, Rollo May, Arthur Combs, Gordon Allport and others have contributed towards its growth. Humanist psychology gives more value to the human being by not considering him merely as a sophisticated machine or the victim of conflict between the ego and id. It considers him as a purposeful being, capable of adapting himself to his environment and choosing his own course of action in order to achieve the goals which he has selected for himself. These goals may be as simple as mere satisfaction of a common physical need or as lofty as the attainment of self-actualization or self-realization.

In this way, humanist psychology lays stress on such distinctive human aspects of personality as the existence of his free will and freedom of choice and his search for unique goals and values to guide his behaviour and to give a personal meaning to his existence.

Transpersonal psychology

Transpersonal psychology is one of the latest approaches prevalent in contemporary psychology. The work of Abraham Maslow in terms of the realization of self-actualization, one’s fullest poten.ial may be said to be the corner stone of this school of Psychology. It focusses its attention on the study of personal experiences that seem to transcend ordinary existence. In other words, what do we think and how do we feel in our altered states of awareness may be the subject area of the transpersonal psychology. These states may be reached during the states of severe stress and distress or in the moments of great excitement and happiness. They may be aroused during periods of sleep or deep concentration. Experimentally they may be induced with the help of the influences brought about by some specific drugs, religious conservations, Yoga and transcendental meditation, etc.

Cognitive psychology

This new school of contemporary psychology is the result of the wave of intellectualism demonstrating faith in the higher cognitive abilities and capacities of human beings for his adaptation to his environment and struggle for perfection. The roots of this psychology may be discovered in the cognitive outlook of the gestalists who advocated an overall mental functioning by bringing the idea of Gestalt and insight in place of a molecular and mechanistic approach for the study of human behaviour.

Cognitive psychology studies all about man’s thinking, memory, language, development, perception, imagery and other mental processes in order to peer through the higher human mental functions like insight, creativity and problem-solving. Cognitive psychologists are totally opposed to the stimulus-response approach of the behaviourists. They maintain that there is something more to learning and behaving than just single responses to stimuli. The human mind does not accept an information from its environment in exactly the same form and Style as it is conveyed to him. The conveyed information is compared with the already stored information in the mind, it is then analysed and often enlarged upo: for giving it a quite new form. Finally, it is subjected to interpretation and use or storage according to the needs of the situation.

Cognitive psychology thus presents a system’s viewpoint in explaining the behaviour mechanism. In this system whatever is conveyed through stimult in the environment may work as INPUT. The cognitive functioning of the human mind as PROCESS and the result of the cognitive functioning as OUTPUT or PRODUCT.

The cognitive psychology is gaining popularity day by day. Edward Tolman, one of the founder cognitive psychologists has contributed much in the field of learning, thinking and creative functioning. While explaining the problem-solving behaviour of the higher organisms he expressed that organism tries to set up mental hypo theses about ways to solve problems and then set out to test these bypotheses through purposeful behaviour.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss, most prominent among the contemporary cognitive psychologists has shown keen interest in the study of the development of cognitive abilities and operation of cognitive processes in children. He has outlined a definite pattern and stages of the development of cognitive abilities depending upon the biological readiness of the children.

SUMMARY

Historically, the evolution of the subject psychology can be conveniently studied by breaking the period, arbitrarily, into three heads: Pre-scientific, Scientific and Present Contemporary age.

The age of preescientific psychology (stretched upto the middle of the 19th century) witnesses the following trends:

1. In the earliest age of superstitions causes and forms of human behaviour were being located in something outside the human beings i.e., planets or demons, spirits, and other Supernatural powers.

2. Subsequently, philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle etc.. with their philosophical viewpoints tried to do away with the evils of superstition. Specially after the renaissance in the 17th century there emerged quite a dominating philosophical basis of behaviour in the philosophies like dualism propagated by Descartes and empiricism advocated by John Locke and Kant.

3. In the 19th Century the viewpoints of Locke, Kant and their successors gave birth to associationism the first school of psychology—in Great ssritain, emphasizing a direct connection between sensation and idea,

4. As a reaction towards too much intellectualization brought about by associationism and empiricism there arose a wave of naturalism propagated by Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel and the idea of Fuculty psychology propagated by German thinkers like Chrisuan Wolff.

5. The faculty psychology was opposed and replaced by Herbure tian psychology propagated by a nineteenth century German professor Johann Friedrich Herbart. It particularly emphasized the doctrine of apperception.

The modern age of scientific psychology

Beginning from the middle of the 19th century, the era of Modern Science and Technology adopted scientific methods instead of speculation for the study of behaviour. The following schools of thought were generated during this period:

(i) Structuralism propagated by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), a German professor, emphasized on the analysis of the components of consciousness (i.e. structure of the mind) through introspection.

(ii) Functionalism initiated by William James (1842-1910), the father of American psychology, considered the mind to be a recent development in the evolutionary process, the function of which was to aid man’s adjustment to his environment. It further emphasized that habits were nothing but the functions of the nervous system.

(iii) Behaviourism propagated by John B. Watson focussed its attention totally on the overt or observable behaviour tor its objective observation.

(iv) In Germany, a group of psychologists gave birth to a new school named as Gestalt psychology quite distinct from behaviourism. It emphasized the role of Configuration or organisation in the perceptual field and high-lighted the importance of insight and understanding in learning or problem-solving.

(v) Psychoanalysis propagated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) put forward many new ideas like unconscious and sub-conscious mind, the concept of repression and catharsis, psychosexual development and sex. as an urge responsible for all types of behaviour, and psychoanalysis as a method of studying behaviour etc.

(vi) In the later years, Alfred Adler (1870-1937) and J. Carl Jung (1875-1961), both students of Freud, as a reaction to Freud’s over-emphasis on sex gave birth to their own schools of thought, Individual Psychology and Analytical Psychology.

Recent trends in contemporary psychology

The present World of psychology is dominated by a mixed trend involving so many schools of thought. Some schools worth mentioning are, behaviourism, psychoanalysis, humanist psychology, transpersonal psychology and cognitive psychology.

✓ Humanist psychology advocated by the contemporary psychologists like Maslow, Rogers, Arthur Combs, Gordon Allport reflects the recent human trends in psychology.

✓ Transpersonal psychology deals with what do we think and how do we feel in our altered states of awareness.

✓ Cognitive psychology has its roots in the cognitive outlook of the gestaltists. The names of psychologists like Edward Tolman and Jean Piaget are associated with the further propagation of the ideas of this psychology. It high lights the role of higher cognitive abilities and capacities of human beings for his adaptation to his environment and lays emphasis on studying cognitive development and functioning of a man to peer through his behaviour.

References and Suggested Readings

Chaplin, J.P. & Krawiec. T.S.; System and Theories of Pyschology (3rd ed ), New York: Holt, Rioehart & Winston, 1974.

Freud, S.; A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis, New York: Liveright, 1935.

Heidbreder, Edna; Seven Psychologies (ist Indian ed.) Ludhiana, Kalyani Publisbers, 1971.

Herrnsteen, R.). & Boring, E.G.; A Source Book on the History of Psychology» Cambridge Mass : Harvard University Press, 1965.

Marks, R.W. (Ed.); Great Ideas in Psychology. New York: Bantam, 1966,

Murphy, G.; An Historical Introduction to Modern Psychology (4th ed.) New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975.

Nordby. VJ. & Hall. C.S.; A Guide to Psychologists and their Concepts, San Francis Co.; W.H. Freeman and Company, 1974.

Skinner, B.F.; About Behaviourism, New York: Alfred knopf . 1974.

Watson, R.I ; The Great Psychologists: from Aristotle to Freud (3rd ed.), Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1971.

Wertheimer. M.; A Brief History of Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970.

Woodworth. R.S.; Contemporary Schools of Psychology, London: Methuen, 1948.

Chapter 3 - METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is termed as the Scientific study of behaviour. The behaviour in all its aspects can be studied scientifically through a single technique or approach known as observation. It leads us to a simple conclusion that observation may be regarded as the only method or technique for carrying out studies regarding behaviour. In fact it is true to a great extent. However, this single technique or approach may give birth to a number of methods, techniques or approaches depending upon the types and nature of the conditions in which observations have been recorded, the procedure adopted and tools used. Let us see how this happens.

—Observation of one’s own behaviour by looking within or looking inward may be adopted as one of the approaches. Such approach is known by method of introspection.

—Sometimes the behavioural events are observed and recorded under very natural conditions by some person or persons. Such observation approach is termed as Naturalistic observation.

—Observation and recording of behavioural events under controlled conditions known as experimentation is classified as Experimental method or approach.

— When these observations are performed outside the laboratories in the real setting by adopting survey technique, the method is named as Normative survey method or the Field survey method.

—In case the observation is made through a case history (reconstruction of an individual's biography), the approach may be termed as Case study or Case history method and if we use psychoanalysis for interpreting the behaviour of a person through the expression of his uncenscious behaviour then the method may be termed as Psychoanalytic method. In case we use the case history material and process of psychoanalysis for the diagnosis and treatment of the behavioural problems, the method is termed as Clinical method.

—In situations where physical devices are used to observe and measure psychological experiences the approach may be termed as Psycho-physical method.

In this way the various modes of observations may give birth to a number of methods and approaches such as Introspection method, Naturalistic observation method, Experimentel method, Normative Survey or Field Survey method, Psychoanalytic Clinical and Psychophysical methods. Let us discuss each of these approaches that help us to investigate the behaviour.

Introspection method

It is the oldest method known for the study of behaviour. In the earlier days of the evolution of the subject psychology, the behaviour was studied only through a kind of self examination or inner observation called introspection. Let us try to look into the meaning of the word introspection to understand this method.

Introspection is composed of two words—“‘intro”’ and ‘‘spection”’. Intro means ‘within or inward’ and spection mean$ ‘looking’. Hence introspection means looking within or looking inward. It is inner perception. Therefore in introspection, one is required to get inside one’s own mind. It isa sort of self-observation in which one perceives, analyses and reports one’s own: feelings and in fact, every thing that takes place in one’s mind during the course of a mental act. For example when in the state of anxiety, fear or anger, one may be asked to discover by one’s own observation what he sensed, thought or felt at the time of experiencing that sort of emotion.

Introspection—the self-observation and reporting of one’s own mental processes—although lacking in some respects still remains important on account of its unique nature. It 1s a simple and readily available method. Our mental processes are always with us and can be introspected at any moment. Thereby, introspection is able to give us a direct and immediate knowledge of our own mental processes without involving any extra expenditure for the material or apparatus. Moreover introspection provides us an adequate knowledge of the inner or covert experiences and thus the inner behaviour of an individual in the form of thinking or feeling something can be revealed through introspection.

However, introspection, as a method of studying behaviour, suffers from some serious drawbacks and limitations such as.

(1) In introspection one needs to observe or examine carefully one’s mental processes in the form of thoughts, feelings or sensations. The state of our mental process is continuously changing. Therefore when we concentrate to introspect a particular phase of our mental activity that phase passes off. For example when we get angry with a person and afterwards sit down calmly to introspect or self examine, the state of anger is sure to be passed on and so what one tries to observe is not what is happening at that time with oneself but what has happened some time before.

(2) Introspection as a method of study seriously lacks reliability, yalidity and objectivity on the following grounds:

A. The results lack in reliable communicability and repeatability. Here one investigator can never be sure that what he feels or senses iS the same as what other investigators do. For example, if we invite the introspection reports on the nature of the sensation of ‘‘green’’, these reports are bound to differ. Some will insist that green is a unitary sensation, whére others will say that green is a mixed sensation involving yellow and blue. We have no arrangement for the objective observation of the introspection phenomenon. Moreover ia introspection one studies one’s own behaviour or mental process. It is not possible to verify the individual’s self-observation as there 1s no provision for studying one’s mind by others in introspection.

B. Is is next to impossible to acquire validity and exactness in self-observation or examination of one’s mental process. The mind in perceiving its own functions tries to divide itself into two halves—the subject and the object. The object of observation and the instrument of observation are just one and the same. It automatically affects the validity and exactness of the observational process and the derived results. A man who is angry or afraid cannot exactly observe what is going on in his mind and remains unchanged in his emotional state of anger or fear. The consciousness on his part is sure to affect his mental or emotional state which is the object of observation:on.

(3) Introspection as a method of studying behaviour has a very limited scope. It can only be applied satisfactorily in the case of adult normal human beings. The behaviour of children, abnormal human beings, animals etc., cannot be studied by this method.

In this way, if we try to evaluate the introspection method we would find that this method is based on self speculation, lacks reliable communicability, repeatability and reasonable exactness or certainty. It is neither sufficiently scientific nor so practicable or simple to handle. Therefore, it cannot be taken as an adequate or sufficient ‘single method for psychological studies. The conclusions arrived at by this method need to be supported on specific scientific grounds by taking the help of some other objective and reliable method.

Naturalistic observation

Naturalistic observation as a method of studying behaviour consists of the perception of an individual’s behaviour under natural conditions by the other individuals and the interpretation and analysis of this perceived behaviour by them. It is thus essentially a way of ‘‘perceiving the behaviour like it is". By this method we can infer the mental processes of other persons through the obseivation of their external behaviour. In fact it is an indirect approach for the study of the mental process. If some one frowns, howls, grinds his teeth, closes his fists, by observing external signs of his behaviour, we can say that he is angry. But to study this behavsour concerning anger in naturalistic conditions, one has to wait for the phenomenon to take place. Similarly to study the behaviour of the students in a crowd or at the time of strike, and behaviour of a delinquent or problem child the psychologist has to wait tll the particular behaviour occurs and then use al! of his resources to observe, record, analyse and interpret the behaviour from what is perceived by him in naturalistic conditions. Naturalistic observation method occupies a leading role in the study of human behaviour. It is economical, natural as well as flexible. Its results can be verified and relied upon. Particularly in studying the developmental characteristics of children’s habits, interests and other similar personality characteristics of individuals the naturalistic observation method proves quite suitable. For example the effect of the absence of a mother, or father or both on the child’s development can be determined properly through observing the development of such deprived children. Similarly a clinical psychologist may be able to collect the required data about abnormal behaviour of an individual by observing him in day-to-day life under natural conditions.

However this method also cannot be termed as sufficiently objective, reliable and valid on account of the following observations aad limitations:

2. Naturalistic observation method can be proved useful only by collecting data and observing the behaviour of an individual. It is impossible for us to know what is happening in the minds of others; we can only observe this through external behaviour. It is possible that a person may be expert in hiding his feelings and emotions from others and can disguise his evil nature in the garb of artificial sobriety. In cases of hypocrisy the method of observation proves a failure in judging the true nature of the individual concerned.

2. Subjectivity factors on the part of the investigator as well as the process of observation also affect the results of observation. There may arise distortions of observable facts depending on the degree of care in observation. His interest, values, vias and prejudices may also distort the contents and results of observation. One may give over-emphasis on some particular part of one’s behaviour and may altogether neglect some very important aspect of one’s behaviour. The interpretations of the recorded events may also be sufficiently coloured. One may read one’s own thoughts, feelings and tendencies in the minds of others. Pitfalls on account of such subjectivity may however be avoided to a certain extent by having as many observers as possible or observing the same phenomenon and employing scientific instruments, such as tape recorder, video films etc., for the recording of events.

3. Another serious limitation of the naturalistic observation method lies in the fact that the behaviour observed is dependent on the particular time and place and on the particular individual or group's of individuals involved. It lacks repeatability as each natural situation can occur only once.

4. Another important limitation of the observation method lies ia not being able to establish a proper cause and effect relationship. In case we observe that two phenomena, say poverty and delinquency behaviour, invariably occur together, we cannot infer from this that poverty is the sufficient and necessary cause of delinquent behaviour or vice versa.

Experimental method

Experimental method is considered as the most scientific and objective method of studying behaviour. It lays emphasis on performing experiments. The word experiment comes from a Latin word meaning ‘“‘to try’, “‘put to the test’. Therefore, in experimentation we try or put to the test the material or phenomenon the characteristics or consequences of which we wish to ascertain. In sciences while doing such experiments an indoor or outdoor jaboratory in natural environment we may be interested to learn the effect of friction on motion, the effect of sunlight on the growth of the plants. etc. In psychology also, we perform such experiments in our psychological laboratory or outside laboratory in the physical or social settings to study the cause and effect relationship regarding the nature of human behaviour i.e., the effect of anxiety, drugs or stresses on the human behaviour, effect of intelligence or the participation in cocurricular activities on the academic performance of the Students. In performing all such experiments we try to establish certain cause and effect relationships through the objective observations of the actions performed and the subsequent changes produced under pre-arranged or rigidly controlled conditions. From these observations certain conclusions are drawn and theories of Principles are performed. The following are the essential features of the experimental method:

(i) Psychological experiments performed in this method essentially require two persons, the experimenter and the subject or the person whose behaviour is observed.

(ii) Psycholcgical experiments are always conducted on living Organisms in contrast to experiments in physical sciences which are generally conducted on inorganic or dead subjects.

(iii) The key factor in this method is the controlling of the conditions or variables. By this control we can eliminate irrelevant conditions or variables and isolate relevant ones. In this way we become able to observe the causal relationship between two phenomena keeping all othcr conditions almost constant. For example, if we try to study the effect of intelligence on academic achievement by experimental method, we will need to discover the causative relation between the two phenomena (variables)—intelligence and academic achievement. One of these variables, the effect of which we want to study, will be called independent variable and the other as dependent variable. Thus independent variable stands for the cause and dependent variable is characterised as the effect of that cause. The other conditions like study habits, sex, Socio-economic conditions, parental education, home environment, health, past learning, memory, etc., which exercise desirable impact upon one’s achievement besides his intelligence are termed as intervening variables. In experimentation all such intervening variables are to be controlled i.e., made constant or equalized and the effect of only one independent variable, like intelligence in the present case, is studied on one or more dependent variables. For this we try to change and vary the independent variable. It brings concomitant changes in the dependent variable or variables. These changes are objectively observed and measured and on the basis of this observation and measurement certain conclusions are drawn.

Experimental Designs: There are various experimental designs used in experimental method for controlling the variables and measuring their effects. A mentionable few of them are as follows:

A. THE CONTROL-TEST OR SINGLE GROUP DESIGN

In such designs there is no need of having two different individuals or groups of subjects for the experiment. Here a single individual or group of individuals can work as subject for the experiment. The subject whether an individual or a group of individuals is first objectively observed under normal conditions and then under changed varying conditions. The conclusions are then, drawn by comparing the differences. Suppose we wish to study the effect of fear stimuli. In the psychological laboratory, all necessary arrangements of instruments and material necessary for the study of the fear responses of the subject in the form of changes in respiration, pulse and heart beat, blood pressure, functioning of the digestive and other internal systems, facial expression etc., will be made. The initial readings regarding all these functions under normal conditions (when there is no fear stimuli present) will be taken from the related instruments. After that the subject will be exposed to sudden fear stimuli like a snake, loud noise, darkness etc., and then the changes in the readings as a result of the intensity of fear responses will be recorded from the various instruments. The difference in the second and initial readings will then indicate the different degrees of the fear intensity that could be aroused on account of the different types of fear stimuli in a particular individual.

For another illustration let us have an experiment in which we want to ascertain whether a group of students can do better on an intelligence test under the influence of a specific drug (liky benzedrine sulphate, caffeine or Brahmi).

For the desired findings we will take only one group of some students preferably of the same age, sex, health conditions etc. The process of experimentation, will then run in the following order:

(i) These students can be given sugar cupsules. After giving the Capsules they can be tested on some intelligence test. This will make the initial testing under normal conditions.

(ii) Some time later, they can be given drug capsules and tested on the same intelligence test. This will make a test under changed conditions.

(iii) The I.Q. scores under these two situations are noted down and the difference is calculated. If any significant difference is found, it is attributed to the influence of the drug.

B. CONTROL-GROUP DESIGN

Control test or single group method possesses a serious drawback known as positive practice effect. If an individual is subjected to certain kind of fear stimuli it will Surely effect the responses on account of his further exposure to fear stimul!. If a group is subjected to acertain drug, then it will automatically carry its effect or intiuence at the time of introduction of some other drugs at the latter stage. Control group designs help in minimising such practice effect.

In control group design two separate groups—known as experimental group and control group—are taken. They are equated or matched on various traits like age, sex, intelligence and other personality characteristics. There is one to one correspondence in the two equated groups. Now the one group—control group—is given sugar capsules and tested on some intelligence test. At the same time the experimental group is given drug capsules and tested on the same intelligence test. Then the differences in the intelligence scores of the groups are calculated. In case we find some significant differences, they are attributed to the effect of drug.

C. MULTIPLE-GROUP DESIGN

Sometimes, we have to experiment with more than two groups arriving at the appropriate conclusion. For example, if we want to Study the effect of having learned English at the speed with which people subsequently learn French. We decide to teach English to a group of students and then see whether they learn French more easily. But more easily than whom? Certainly we will need another group—or groups—for comparison. Group A, consisting of the English language learnt students is called the experimental group Group B may function as a control group for comparison, since it did not study English earlier. If group A learns French faster than group B, can we attribute the difference in speed to studying English earlier? Certainly not. [t may be possible that practice on account of learning any subject or language may have the same positive transfer effect. To rule out these possibilities it is essential to add some more control groups like C and D. Now if group A demonstrates a clear superiority over the other three groups, then and only then we may infer that learning English facilitates learning French. For purpose of illustration the working of multiple group design for the collection of data in the present case may run as follows:

Group Subject for test held in the

Month of August Test help in the

Month of February

A English French

B No test French

C Any subject say maths French

D Russian French

D. DESIGNS INVOLVING ROTATION

This design consists in presenting two or more stimulating situations to the experimental subjects in as many sequences aS necessary to control the serial effects of fatigue or practice. For example if we want to determine the relative influence of two specified conditions A and B (say praise and blame) on a group of subjects, we will not measure all the subjects under condition A and then under condition B. Condition A might so cause fatigue or train the subjects that the measures under condition B would not be independent of the fatigue or training effects. Here two alternatives can be adopted:

(i) We may obtain half the measures for condition A, all the measures for condition B, and then the otber half of the measures for condition A. This technique is sometimes called the A B B A order.

(ii) Another alternative is to separate the subjects into two equated groups, one of which receives treatment A and then B, whereas the other group receives treatment B and then A. Both sets of A results and both sets of B results may then be combined and the difference between them calculated.

Limitations of experimental method

1. Experimental method advocates the study of behaviour under completely controlled rigid conditions. These conditions demand the creation of artificial situations or environment and the behaviour studied under these conditions may be or is usually different from spontaneous or natural behaviour. Therefore experimental method fails to study the behaviour in naturalistic conditions as otherwise may be studied through naturalistic observation.

2. The second limitation or difficulty lies in exercising actual control or handling of the independent variable and the intervening

variables. It is quite dificult to know and control all of the intere vening varables. Smilarly we cannot, always, control the indepene dent variable. Therefore it is not always possible to create conditions in the aboratory as we would like to and consequently in tho absence of the desired controlled conditions. the success of this method becomes quite unpredictable.

3. In experimental method we ofien make use of the animals or birds as subjects for the experimentation. It is also debatable whether experimental results obtained from such sources are applicable to human beings or not.

4. Experimental method has a limited scope. All problems of psy chology cannot be studied by this metbod as we cannot perform experiments for all the problems that may be raised in the hetero geneous subject matter of psychology.

5. The dynamic nature of human behaviour, does not always allow the independent variable leading to the change in the dependent variable. Human behaviour is not liko a machine like behaviour The anger or lear producing stimull or variables may or may noti vield the required responses as desired under experiment and hence it is not possible to get the uniform responses or changes in tbe dependent variables on account of the concomitant changes in the independent variable.

6. Experimental method is a costy and time-consuming method. Moreover bandling of this method demands specialized knowledgei and skill. In the absence of such expertise this method is not functionable.

Differential method

Differential method is based on individual diferences. Therefore, all the measures applied to the calculation of individual differences are included in this method. Differential method is also known as i Normative Survoy method or the Field Survey method as thc investi gator has to go to the tield to investigate. It is sometimes called Statistical method tor the reason that statistical techniques become ai major factor for studying the individual differences

It differs from experimental approach in the sense that here the investigator cannot intentionally manipulate the variables. Each is studied as an independent variable. For example, in the case of studying the relationship of achievement with intelligence, it is not possible to manipulate the intelligence. Therefore, we have to lakei cach individual and study his achievement with respect to his intelll gence. After that with the help of statistical techniques we can try to arrive at certain conclusions.

There are two types of main approaches or designs, which are used in differential method. They are:

(i) Correlation approach.

(ii) The Longitudinal and Cross-sectional approach.

In correlation studies the psychologist takes people as they are and studies what they do usually without changing the conditions under which they respond to the tests or perform the desired tasks. For example, in the above case of finding relationship of achievement with intelligence, the intelligence as well as achievement, say academic achievement of each individual (in study) can be found with the help of intelligence as well as achievement tests. The subjects wil! naturally differ from one another and by using the statistical technique of correlation, the desired relationship can be concluded.

By the longitudinal approach we mean an approach that is spread over a long period of time. It is most used in Developmental Psychology. Here one particular individual is taken and is studied for a long span of time.

In cross-sectional approach we take many individuals and study them simultaneously.

In all these approaches, the help of statistical analysis is taken for calculating aad analysing the individual differences and then relevant conclusions are arrived at by the interpretation of these measures.

Clinical method

Whereas experimental and differential methods are generally used to investigate general behaviour facts, the clinical method is directed towards the study of individual behaviour. The clinical set-up or environment is associated with the health care and treatment of the individuals who come for advice and treatment of their physical and, mental disorders. In the same sense. clinical methods remind us about all those methods which deal with the task of investigating the root causes of a problem or exceptional behaviour and suggesting as well as providing proper environment and possible treatment:

The concept of a clinical method is well contained in the concept of clinical Psychology itself which can be described as: Clinical Psychology is the art and technology of dealing with the adjustment problems of the individual. Analysis of this definition may help us to observe some of the following characteristics regarding nature and working of the clinical method;

(i) Clinical method is applicable to an individual case.

(ii) The individual has some problems.

(iii) Both methods of diagnosis and treatment are employed in dealing with these problems.

(iv) Clinical approach is an art as well as a science and technology which means that everybody cannot treat every patient and it derives pleasure in making mankind healthier and better.

Thus, the basic elements in this method of psychological investigation are the diagnosis and treatment of the problem or mental illness of an individual.

Method of Diagnosis: Diagnosis in a clinical method calls for a symptomatic picture of the total situation for finding out the root cause of illness or behavioural! problem. For such diagnosis one has to look for the past events or experiences of the individuals, their impact and reactions, the present environment and adjustment problems and the total personality make-up, etc. For ascertaining all these aspects the following techniques are generally employed:

(a) Adequate Physical Check-up: The individual suffering from some behavioural problem must be made to go through adequate physical check up for ascertaining whether the behaviour exhibited is of a functional or an organic basis. In case there are no physical somatic causes for the underlying behaviour, then and then only should it be made a subject for the diagnosis of psychological treatment.

(6) Making out the case history: For finding out the clues or digging out the events from the earlier experiences of the individual responsible for the present behaviour, the psychologist, then, tries to make use of the case history technique.

In this technique information is collected from the memory of the individual, his parents, members of his family, relatives, guardians, neighbours, friends, teachers, doctors and from all other available records and reports concerning the individual's past. For collecting the relevant information the following heads may be used:

1 Identifying Data: This comprises the name of the individual, fathcr’s name, residential address, date of birth, caste/religion, nature of exceptional or abnormal behaviour, etc.

2. Environmental background: Information about the members of the family, parents, their mutual relationships and behaviour with the individual under study, educational and socio-economic status of the family, the accidents and incidents that have occurred in the family, types of neighbours, friends and socio-cultural environment, types of school education and school or job situation environment etc.

3. Developmental History: History of the growth and developmental process of the individual in relation to the treatment, behaviour and environmental facilities available from birth onwards, history of his mental and physical health, educational and occupational history, social and emotional adjustment history, sex-life history etc.

4. History of his exceptional abnormal behaviour. All the relevant information regarding the subsequent development of the behaviour in question upto the present stage.

(c) The Clinical interview: Additional but very very important information may be collected by the investigator by arranging clinical interviews with individuals. For this purpose he may carefully plan appropriate questions and persuade the individual to give free and frank answers by establishing necessary rapport. For understanding the inner working of the mind of the individual, be may be given the opportunity to talk about himself in this interview session. From these responses, the investigator, may then draw his own conclusions for the diagnosis of the root cause of the behaviour.

(d) Direct observation of the behaviour: Direct observation of the behaviour of the individual by the investigator in the real natural set-up, living and working conditions may serve a quite useful purpose for getting to know the nature and causes of the behaviour. In the case of children, directly observing them at play, may serve the useful purpose of learning all about the chifd, his behaviour and problems.

(e) Using tests and measuring: devices: Help may also be taken from certain testing and measuring devices to ascertain the interests. abilities, attitudes, aptitudes and total personality make up of the individual and thus gather the relevant information for understanding the individual and his behaviour.

Method and treatment

Diagnosis is to be followed by treatment in order to serve the welfare of the individual. In case of the behavioural problem treatment, efforts are to be made to bring about a change in the behaviour of the individual in order to get him adjusted to his environment and thus ultimately restore him to his normal mental health. Usually it can be accomplished in two ways: ,

1. Modifying the environmental forces.

2. Modifying the client's attitude.

The physical and socio-cultural environment surrounding the individual needs to be modified in such a way that the individual may not be subjected to further disharmony and maladjustment. Rather he should be abie to get a pleasant and encouraging environment characterized by wholesome and harmonious relationships with other social beings and he should be given enough opportunity to enable him fulfil his basic needs. For this purpose the following measures may be adopted:

(i) The client may be physically removed from one situation and placed in another like boarding houses, foster homes or with guardians and adopted parents.

(ii) The attitude of parents, teachers and others toward the ef client may be changed.

(iii) More adequate recreational facilities, living conditions, work placement and working conditions may be provided or some $uitable measures for the sublimation and catharsis of repressed desires and wishes may be taken.

For bringing a change in the behaviour a complete madification Of the client’s philosophy of life is required. He must be made to harmonise his thinking. feeling and doing. For this purpose a number Of measures like the following may be adopted:

(i) Guidance and counselling.

(ii) Psychoanalysis.

(iii) Techniques like auto-suggestion, hypnosis, psychodrama and role playing.

(iv) Therapies like psychotherapy, group therapy, play therapy, occupation therapy, attitude therapy, etc.

Psycho physical methods

The branch of psychology which is concerned with the study of relationship between physical and psychological phenomenon is called psycho-physics. In this sense, the term psycho-physical methods may be referred to all those methods in which attempts are made to employ physical devices for the scientific measurement of some psychological experiences like sensation of weight. brightness, loudness and other such magnitudes. The other complicated psychological phenomena like sleep or span of memory etc., can also be studied through the use of such psycho-physical methods.

Three classical psycho-physical methods devised by the German physiologist and physicist Gustav Fechner (1801-1887), the father of psycho-physics are still in vogue. They are:

(i) The method of minimal changes or methods of limits.

(ii) Tbe method of constant stimuli or the method of right and wrong responses.

(iii) The method of average or mean error.

These methods are primarily employed to measure absolute threshold and the difference threshold. Both the absolute threshold and the difference threshold are statistical concepts and both are measured in much the same way.

The absolute threshold may be defined as the minimum value of a physical stimulus that reliably produces sensation. Absolute threshold, thus, separates the sounds we can hear from those we cannot, the odors we can smell from those we cannot, the brightness of the light we can see from that which we cannot and so on.

The difference threshold may be defined as the minimum difference in value between two stimuli that can be perceived by the subject. For example, when one experiences a particular weight put on his hand, the difference threshold is the minimum weight that should be added to it so that the total becomes distinguishable from the first. Let us now give a brief idea of the three psychophysical methods mentioned above.

The method of minimal changes or the methods of limits

This method may be used for finding out the absolute threshold and difference threshold. The procedure is outlined as follows:

1. The subject is exposed to experience a sensation. For example he may be asked whether he is able to see the object lying ata particular distance (say 80 cms) or not.

2. If he says no then the value of the distance ie gradually decreased until the subject reports that he is able to see it. Suppose at the distance of 77 cms he says no but at the distance of 76 cms he says yes, then both these values at which the subject’s judgement changed from saying no to yes about the visibility of the object will be noted down by the experimenter.

3. in the next round, the object may be placcd at the distance much nearer than the absolute threshold say 70 cms in the present casc. This distance may. then be gradually increased tll the subject reports that he does not see the object. The successive values at which the subject's respunse changes from yes to no is noted down. Let these values be 75 and 76 cms in the present case.

4. All these values pertaining to minimal changes in the value of the absolute threshold or difference threshold in both the descending and ascending series of trials are then noted down.The process is repeated many times. After the completion of several ascending and desecnding series; the experimenter, may then, complete the average of all these minimal values. (The limits of the intensity of the sensory stimuli Which produces a change from 0 to 100 per cent in terms of the feeling of sensation). In the present exmaple, we may thus compute the average of the values. 77, 76, 75 and 76 etc. Yielding the value 77 - 76 - 75 - 76 / 4 i.e 76cm as a minimal value of the distance

at which the subject may be able to see the experimental object.

In a similar way, absolute threshold concerning auditory intensity mav also be determined. In an ascending series of trials, the experimenter while beginning with a clearly sub-threshold value. may progressively raise the intensity of the sound until the subject reports that he hears the sound. In the descending series of trials, he may gradually decrease the intensity of sound till the subject reports that he hears no sound. The average of ali these values in the several ascending and descending series at which the subject's response is changed from yes to no or vice versa about the hearing of the sound 1s then calculated for designating the absolute threshold.

The method of constant stimuli (the method of right and wrong cases)

In this method the value of the intensity of the sensory stimulus is neither gradually increased nor decreased as in the case of the method of limits but the sensory stimuli of varying intensity are preSented at random before the subject. The stimuli include at least one Sample that is well above the probable threshold value and another Sample that is well below it. The subject is then asked to indicate Whether or not he detects each of these randomly presented stimuli. The responses in the form of yes or no of the subject are then noted by the experimenter and ultimately the probability of yes response is related to intensity of the stimuli. All the values related with the yes responses are then, averaged to give the required threshold.

The Method of average error

This method is also called the method of mean error or the adjustmeat method. In performing experiment by this method, the subject is presented with some stimulus of a standard intensity. He may then be asked to adjust a variable stimulus to his standard by making a number of attempts. In doing so he may miss the standard by a more or less margin. This is referred to as error. The average of such errors committed is noted down. It is subtracted or added to the stundard value (depending upon the +ive or —ive sign of the computed average error) for giving the subject’s absolute threshold of sensitivity to the stimulus

Conclusion regarding methods

Which of the above discussed methods is suitable in studying the problems of psychology is a difficult question to be answered. All these methods have their own strengths and weaknesses and possess some unique characteristics which make them highly specific in a particular situation. However, a wise investigator must keep in mind the factors of objectivity, reliability and validity for the solution of the problem in hand. He should have a deep insight into the nature of his subjects, his problem, the environmental surroundings and the resources at hand and accordingly select a proper method or methods to keep himself as scientific and objective as possible for deriving the best possible results from his study.

SUMMARY

Study of behaviour in psychology can be made through the observauon of behaviour. This observation may be carried out in various forms giving birth to a variety of methods, discussed below:

1. Introspection is a sort of self-observation in which one perceives, analyses and reports one’s own feelings and in fact, everything that takes place in one’s mind during the course of a mental act. Although it provides a simple, inexpensive and readily available method for studying one’s behaviour, yet it is termed as a quite unscientific method.

2. Naturalistic observation provides a way of studying the behaviour of an individual, by some other individual, in the most natural conditions. Valuable data for studying human behaviour can be collected through this method. However, it can not also be termed as sufficiently objective, reliable and valid for studying human behaviour.

3. Experimental method is considered a most scientific and objective method for studying behaviour. Here we try to study the cause and efféct relationship regarding the nature of human behaviour by performing experiments i.e., the objective observations under rigidly controlled laboratory like conditions. The key factor to this method is the controlling of conditions or variables. There are three types of variables—independent, dependent and intervening Independent variable stands for the cause and dependent for the effect of that cause. The other conditions or factors that influence the cause and effect relationship are called intervening variables. In an experiment all such variables are needed to be controlled. For exercising such control we may make use of various experimental designs like control test or single group design, contro! group design. matching group design and design involving rotation depending upon the demands of the experiment and availability of the resources athand.

4. Differential method is based on individual differences. It is also called normative survey method. Here we study the behaviour of the individuals to find out the relative differences. Correlation, longitudinal and cross sectional studies made in psychology are included in the realm of this method. Help of statistical measures is also taken in this method for the necessary analysis and interpretation of collected data through the normative survey techniques.

5. Clinical method helps in the diagnosis and treatment of the problem or exceptional behaviour of an individual. Diagnosis may be carried out through an adequate physical check up, building up a comprehensive history (digging out the events or finding out the clues for the present behaviour), arranging clinical interview, using relevant tests and measuring devices and observing the client's behaviour in natural surroundings. Treatment is usually of two kinds (i) modifying the environmental forces and (ii) modifying the clients attitude to help him adjust to his environment.

6. Psycho-physical methods employ physical devices for the scigntitic measurement of some psychological experiences like sensation of weight, brightness, loudness and other such magnitudes. The popular psycho-physical methods are (i) the method of minimal changes or the method of limits, (ii) the method of constant stimuli or the method of right and wrong responses and (iii) the method of average or mean error.

All these psychophysical methods are primarily employed to measure absolute threshold (minimum value of a physical stimulus that reliably produces sensation) and the difference threshold (minimum difference in value between two stimuli that can be perceived by the subject).

References and Suggested Readings

Andrews. T G. (Ed.), Methods of Psychology, New York: John Wiley, 1960.

Boring, EG.. A History of Experimental Psychology (2nd ed.) New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1950.

Horney, K; New Ways in Psychoanalysis. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 1939. Sidman, M.; Tactics of Scientific Ressarch, New York: Basic Books, 1960.

Wilson. EB. Jr. ; An Introduction to Scientific Research, New York: McGrawii, 1952

Woodworth, R.S.; Experimental Psychology, New York: Holt, 1938 (Revised edition 1954).

General Psychology - 1. PSYCHOLOGY MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE 2. DEVELOPMENT OF - PSYCHOLOGY—A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 3. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

2. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGYA HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Chapter 3 - METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

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